February 21, 2010 <Back to Index>
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Antonio de Padua María Severino López de Santa Anna y Pérez de Lebrón (21 February 1794 – 21 June 1876), often known as Santa Anna or López de Santa Anna, was a Mexican political leader, general and President who greatly influenced early Mexican and Spanish politics and government. He first fought against the independence from Spain, and then supported it. He rose to the ranks of general and president at various times over a turbulent 40-year career. He was President of Mexico on seven non-consecutive occasions over a period of 22 years. Santa Anna was born in Xalapa, Veracruz, New Spain, on February 21, 1794; he was the son of a respected Spanish colonial family, Antonio López de Santa Anna and Manuela Pérez de Lebrón, who belonged to the criollo middle
class. They were wealthy enough to send their son to school. His father
served for a time as a sub-delegate for the Spanish province of
Veracruz, New Spain for the Royal Army. In June 1810, Santa Anna at age 16 became a cadet and was sent to the Fijo de Vera Cruz infantry regiment under the command of Joaquín de Arredondo. In 1810, the same year that Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla started
Mexico’s first attempt to gain independence from Spain, Santa Anna
joined the colonial Spanish Army under Joaquín de Arredondo, who
taught him much about dealing with Mexican nationalist rebels. In 1811,
Santa Anna was wounded in the left arm by a native Chichimec arrow. It was during the campaign under Colonel Joaquin Arredondo in the town of Amoladeras, in the state of San Luis Potosí. In 1813, Santa Anna served in Texas against the Gutiérrez/Magee Expedition, and at the Battle of Medina,
in which he was cited for bravery. He was promoted quickly. He became a
second lieutenant in February 1812, and first lieutenant before the end
of that year. In the aftermath of the rebellion, the young officer
witnessed Arredondo's fierce counter-insurgency policy of mass
executions. Historians have speculated that Santa Anna modeled his
policy and conduct in the Texas Revolution on his experience under Arredondo. During
the next few years, in which the war for independence reached a
stalemate, Santa Anna erected villages for displaced citizens near Veracruz. He also pursued gambling, a vice that would follow him all through his life. In
1816 Santa Anna was promoted to captain. He conducted occasional
campaigns to suppress Native Americans or to restore order after a
tumult had begun. Mexican territory extended to present-day Oregon in
the north and Panama in the south. It was a territory too vast for the
Spanish Crown to control. In 1821, Santa Anna declared his loyalty for El Libertador (The Liberator): the future Emperor of Mexico, Agustín de Iturbide.
He rose to prominence by quickly driving Spanish forces out of the
vital port city of Veracruz that same year. Iturbide rewarded him with
the rank of general. Santa Anna exploited his situation for personal
gain. He acquired a large hacienda and at the same time continued
gambling. Santa
Anna was ambiguous in support of Iturbide, who was never popular and
needed the military to maintain his power. Santa Anna’s normal loyalty
was to ally with the wealthy and privileged, but his immediate concern
was to be on the winning side in any battle. Switching allegiances
never troubled him. Santa Anna declared himself retired, "unless my
country needs me". In
1822 Santa Anna went over to the camp of military leaders supporting
the plan to overthrow Iturbide. In December 1822 Santa Anna and General Guadalupe Victoria signed the Plan de Casa Mata to
abolish the monarchy and transform Mexico into a republic. In May 1823,
following Iturbide's resignation, Victoria became the first president
of Mexico. Santa Anna's role in the overthrow of Iturbide gained
support from other leaders, although they knew of his propensity for
switching sides in an opportunistic manner. By 1824, Vicente Guerrero appointed Santa Anna governor of the state of Yucatán. On his own initiative, Santa Anna prepared to invade Cuba,
which remained under Spanish rule, but he possessed neither the funds
nor sufficient support for such a venture. In 1828, Santa Anna, Vicente
Guerrero, Lorenzo Zavala and other politicians staged a coup against
the elected President Manuel Gómez Pedraza.
On 3 December 1828, the army shelled the National Palace; the election
results were annulled and Guerrero took over as president. In 1829, Spain made a final attempt to retake Mexico in Tampico with an invading force of 2,600 soldiers. Santa Anna marched against the Barradas Expedition with a much smaller force and defeated the Spaniards, many of whom were suffering from yellow fever.
The defeat of the Spanish army not only increased Santa Anna’s
popularity but also consolidated the independence of the new Mexican
republic. Santa Anna was declared a hero. From then on, he styled himself "The Victor of Tampico" and "The Savior of the Motherland". His main act of self-promotion was to call himself "The Napoleon of the West". In a December 1829 coup, Vice-President Anastasio Bustamante rebelled
against President Guerrero, had him executed, and on January 1, 1830
took over the presidency. In 1832 a rebellion started against
Bustamante, intended to install Manuel Pedraza, whose election in 1828
recognized the rebels as legitimate. The rebels offered the command to
Gen. Santa Anna. In August 1832, Bustamante temporarily appointed Melchor Múzquiz to
the post of president. He moved against the rebels and defeated them at
Gallinero. Dolores Hidalgo, Guanajuato and Puebla marched to meet the
forces of Santa Anna, who were approaching the town of Puebla. After two more battles Bustamante, Pedraza and Santa Anna signed the agreement Zavaleta (21-23
December 1832) to install Pedraza as president. Bustamente went into
exile. Santa Anna accompanied the new president on Jan. 3, 1833, and
joined him in the capital. President
Pedraza convened Congress. It elected Santa Anna as President on April
1 1833. President Santa Anna appointed as Vice-President, Valentín Gómez Farías,
and largely left the governing of the nation to him. Farias began to
implement liberal reforms, mostly aimed against the army and the Roman
Catholic Church, a state religion in Mexico. Such reforms as abolishing
tithing as a legal obligation, and the seizure of church property and
finances, prompted Mexican Conservatives to turn to Santa Anna to take
power again. At
their behest, Santa Anna denounced the administration of Vice-President
Farias, and forced him and his main supporters to flee to the United
States. He formed a new Catholic, centralist, conservative government
which replaced the 1824 constitution with the new constitutional
document, entitled "The Seven Laws" (Constitution of 1836). Santa Anna
dissolved the Congress and began the centralization of power. The
regime became a centralized dictatorship backed by the military. Several states openly rebelled against the changes: Coahuila y Tejas (which was to become the Republic of Texas), San Luis Potosí, Querétaro, Durango, Guanajuato, Michoacán, Yucatán, Jalisco, Nuevo León, Tamaulipas and Zacatecas. Several of these states formed their own governments, the Republic of the Rio Grande, the Republic of Yucatan, and the Republic of Texas.
(Only the Texans defeated Santa Anna and retained their independence).
Their fierce resistance was possibly fueled by reprisals Santa Anna
committed against his defeated enemies. The Zacatecan militia, the largest and best supplied of the Mexican states, led by Francisco Garcia, was well armed with .753 caliber British 'Brown Bess' muskets and Baker .61 rifles.
Nonetheless, after two hours of combat on May 12, 1835, Santa Anna's
"Army of Operations" defeated the Zacatecan militia and took almost
3,000 prisoners. Santa Anna allowed his army to loot Zacatecas for
forty-eight hours. After defeating Zacatecas, he planned to move on to Coahuila y Tejas to quell the rebellion there, which was being supported by settlers from the United States (aka Texians). Like
other states discontented with the central Mexican authorities, the
Texas department of the Mexican state of Coahuila y Tejas rebelled in
late 1835 and declared itself independent on March 2, 1836. Santa Anna
marched north to bring Texas back under Mexican control. On March 6,
1836, at the Battle of the Alamo, Santa Anna's forces killed 187-250 Texan defenders and later executed more than 350 Texan prisoners at the Goliad Massacre (March 27, 1836). Following the defeat, the Texans were reorganized under Sam Houston. Houston and his soldiers defeated Santa Anna at the Battle of San Jacinto on
April 21, 1836, with the Texan army shouting "Remember Goliad, Remember
the Alamo!" The day after the battle on April 22, a small band of Texan
forces captured Santa Anna, dressed in a dragoon private's uniform and
hiding in a marsh. Acting Texas president David G. Burnet and Santa Anna signed the Treaties of Velasco:
"in his official character as chief of the Mexican nation, he
acknowledged the full, entire, and perfect Independence of the Republic
of Texas." In exchange, Burnet and the Texas government guaranteed
Santa Anna's life and transport to Veracruz. Back in Mexico City, however, a new government declared that Santa Anna was no longer president and that the treaty with Texas was null and void. After some time in exile in the United States, and after meeting with U.S. president Andrew Jackson in 1837, Santa Anna was allowed to return to Mexico aboard the USS Pioneer (1836) to retire to his hacienda in Veracruz, called Manga de Clavo. In 1838, Santa Anna had a chance for redemption from the loss of Texas.
After Mexico rejected French demands for financial compensation for
losses suffered by French citizens, France sent forces that landed in
Veracruz, Mexico in the Pastry War.
The Mexican government gave Santa Anna control of the army and ordered
him to defend the nation by any means necessary. He engaged the French
at Veracruz. During Mexican retreat after a failed assault, Santa Anna
was hit in the leg and hand by cannon fire. His shattered ankle
required amputation of much of his leg, which he ordered buried with
full military honors. Despite Mexico's final capitulation to French
demands, Santa Anna used his war service to re-enter Mexican politics
as a hero. He never allowed Mexico to forget him and his sacrifice in
defending the fatherland. Santa Anna famously used a prosthetic cork leg; during the Mexican-American War, it was captured and kept by American troops. The false leg is displayed at the Illinois National Guard Museum in Springfield. The Mexican government has repeatedly asked for its return. Soon
after, as Bustamante's presidency turned chaotic, supporters asked
Santa Anna to take control of the provisional government. Santa Anna
became president for the fifth time, taking over a nation with an empty
treasury. The war with France had weakened Mexico, and the people were
discontented. Also, a rebel army led by Generals Jose Urrea and José Antonio Mexía was marching towards the capital in opposition to Santa Anna. Commanding the army, Santa Anna crushed the rebellion in Puebla. Santa
Anna's rule was more dictatorial than his first administration.
Anti-Santanista newspapers were banned and dissidents jailed. In 1842,
he directed a military expedition into Texas, which resulted in no gain but persuaded more Texans of the potential benefits of annexation by the more powerful United States. Trying
to restore the treasury, Santa Anna raised taxes, but this aroused
resistance. Several Mexican states stopped dealing with the central
government, and Yucatán and Laredo declared
themselves independent republics. With resentment growing, Santa Anna
stepped down from power. Fearing for his life, he tried to elude
capture, but in January 1845 he was apprehended by a group of Indians
near Xico, Veracruz. They turned him over to authorities, and Santa Anna was imprisoned. His life was spared, but the dictator was exiled to Cuba. In 1846, the United States declared war on Mexico. Santa Anna wrote to Mexico City saying
he had no aspirations to the presidency, but would eagerly use his
military experience to fight off the foreign invasion of Mexico as he
had in the past. President Valentín Gómez Farías was
desperate enough to accept the offer and allowed Santa Anna to return.
Meanwhile, Santa Anna had secretly been
dealing with representatives of the United States, pledging that if he
were allowed back in Mexico through the U.S. naval blockades, he would
work to sell all contested territory to the United States at a
reasonable price. Once back in Mexico at the head of an army, Santa
Anna reneged on both of these agreements. Santa Anna declared himself
president again and unsuccessfully tried to fight off the United States
invasion. In 1851, Santa Anna went into exile in Kingston, Jamaica, and two years later, moved to Turbaco, Colombia.
In April 1853, he was invited back by rebellious conservatives, with
whom he succeeded in retaking the government. This reign was no better
than his earlier ones. He funneled government funds to his own pockets,
sold more territory to the United States (Gadsden Purchase),
and declared himself dictator for life with the title "Most Serene
Highness". The Ayutla Rebellion of 1854 removed Santa Anna from power. Despite
his generous payoffs to the military for loyalty, by 1855 even
conservative allies had had enough of Santa Anna. That year a group of
liberals led by Benito Juárez and Ignacio Comonfort overthrew Santa Anna, and he fled back to Cuba. As the extent of his corruption became known, he was tried in absentia for treason; all his estates were confiscated by the government. Santa Anna lived in exile in Cuba, the United States, Colombia, and St. Thomas. In 1869, 74-year-old Santa Anna was living in exile in Staten Island, New York. He was trying to raise money for an army to return and take over Mexico City. During his time in New York City, he is credited with bringing in the first shipments of chicle, the base of chewing gum.
He failed to profit from this, since his plan was to use the chicle to
replace rubber in carriage tires, which was tried without success. Thomas Adams,
the American assigned to aid Santa Anna while he was in the United
States, experimented with chicle in an attempt to use it as a
substitute for rubber. He bought one ton of the substance from Santa
Anna, but his experiments proved unsuccessful. Instead, Adams helped to
found the chewing gum industry with a product that he called "Chiclets". Santa Anna was a passionate fan of the sport of cockfighting. He would invite breeders from all over the world for matches and is known to have spent tens of thousands of dollars on prize roosters. In 1874 he took advantage of a general amnesty and returned to Mexico. Crippled and almost blind from cataracts, he was ignored by the Mexican government at the anniversary of the Battle of Churubusco. Two years later, Santa Anna died in Mexico City on June 21, 1876, penniless and heartbroken. |