October 24, 2010 <Back to Index>
PAGE SPONSOR |
Rafael Leonidas Trujillo Molina, nicknamed "El Jefe" ("The Chief" or "The Boss") (October 24, 1891 – May 30, 1961) ruled the Dominican Republic from 1930 until his assassination in 1961. He officially served as president from 1930 to 1938 and again from 1942 to 1952, ruling for the rest of his tenure in office as an unelected military strongman. His tyranny, historically known as "La Era de Trujillo" ("The Trujillo Era"), is considered one of the bloodiest of the 20th century, as well as a time of a classic personality cult, when monuments to Trujillo were in abundance. Rafael Leonidas Trujillo Molina was born in San Cristóbal to Jose Trujillo Valdez, a small retailer possibly of Canarian origin, and Altagracia Julia Molina Chevalier, later known as Mamá Julia, whose mother was half-Haitian. Trujillo later suppressed knowledge of his mother's ancestry due to his ordered massacre of Haitians. He was related to the Abreus family. He was the third of eleven children. His siblings were Rosa María Julieta, Virgilio, José "Petan" Arismendy, Amable "Pipi" Romero, Aníbal Julio, Nieves Luisa, Pedro Vetilio, Ofelia Japonesa, and Héctor "Negro" Bienvenido Trujillo Molina On August 13, 1913, at the age of 22, Trujillo married Aminta Ledesma, a reputable young girl from his hometown of San Cristóbal. They had two daughters: Genoveva, who was born and died in 1914, and Flor de Oro Trujillo Ledesma, born in 1915 and who later married Porfirio Rubirosa. The marriage, not mentioned in later official biographies, ended in a divorce in 1925. On March 30, 1927, Trujillo married Bienvenida Ricardo, a girl from Montecristi and the daughter of Buenaventura Ricardo Heureaux. A year later he met Maria de los Angeles Martínez Alba "la españolita", and had an affair with her. She gave birth to Rafael Leonidas Ramfis on June 5, 1929. He divorced Bienvenida in 1935 and married Martínez. A year later he had a daughter with Bienvenida, named Odette Trujillo Ricardo. Trujillo's two children with Maria Martínez were María de los Angeles, (Angelita), born in Paris on June 10, 1939, and Leonidas Rhadamés, born on December 1, 1942. Ramfis and Rhadamés were named after characters in Giuseppe Verdi's opera Aida. In 1937, Trujillo met Lina Lovatón Pittaluga, an upper-class debutante with whom he had two children, Yolanda in 1939, and Rafael, born on June 20, 1943. Two
of Trujillo's brothers, Héctor and José Arismendy, held
positions in his government. José Arismendy Trujillo oversaw the
creation of "La Voz Dominicana", the main radio station and later, the
television station which became the fourth in the continent. Trujillo's
childhood passed relatively without incidents. His basic education was
irregular and quite limited. At six he was registered in the school of
Juan Hilario Meriño. One year later he transferred to the school
of Broughton, where he was a pupil of Eugenio María de Hostos,
and remained there for three or four years. At sixteen Trujillo got a
job as a Morse code telegraph operator. He became a member of "The 44",
a small gang. In 1916 Trujillo worked for two years in the sugar industry eventually as a guarda campestre. In
1916, the U.S. occupied the island due to threats of defaulting on
foreign debts. The occupying force soon established a Dominican army
constabulary to restore order. Seeing opportunity, Trujillo impressed
the recruiters and was soon promoted through the ranks. When U.S.
troops left the island in 1924, they left Trujillo in charge. The rebellion against President Horacio Vásquez broke
out in 1930 in Santiago, and the rebels marched toward Santo Domingo.
Trujillo was ordered to subdue the rebellion, but when the mutineers
arrived at the capital on February 26, they encountered no resistance.
Rebel leader Rafael Estrella was proclaimed as acting-president when
Vásquez resigned. Trujillo then became the nominee of the
newly-formed Dominican Party in
the 1930 presidential election. He won on May 16, officially
registering 95 percent of the vote — an implausibly high total that
could have been obtained only by means of massive fraud. A judge
actually declared the election fraudulent, but was forced to flee. On
August 16, the then 38-year-old general took office, wearing a sash
with the motto, "Dios y Trujillo" (God & Trujillo). He immediately
assumed dictatorial powers.
Three weeks later, the destructive Hurricane San Zenon hit Santo Domingo and left more than 3,000 dead. With relief money from the American Red Cross,
Trujillo rebuilt the city. On August 16, 1931, the first anniversary of
his inauguration, Trujillo made the Dominican Party the sole legal
political party. However, the country had effectively been a one-party
state since Trujillo had been sworn in. Government employees were
required to "donate" 10 percent of their salary to the national
treasury, and
there was strong pressure on adult citizens to join the party. Party
members were required to carry a membership card, the "palmita," and a
person could be arrested for vagrancy without the card. Those who did
not contribute, or join the party, did so at their own risk. Opponents
of the regime were mysteriously killed. In 1934, Trujillo, who had
promoted himself to generalissimo of
the army, was up for re-election. Although he would have won in any
case as there was virtually no organized opposition left in the
country, Trujillo dispensed even with these formalities. Instead, he
relied upon "civic reviews," with large crowds shouting their loyalty
to the government. At the suggestion of Mario Fermín Cabral, Congress voted overwhelmingly in 1936 to rename the capital from Santo Domingo to Ciudad Trujillo. The province of San Cristobal was created as "Trujillo," and the nation's highest peak, Pico Duarte,
was renamed in his honor. Statues of "El Jefe" were mass-produced and
erected across the Republic, and bridges and public buildings were
named in his honor. The nation's newspapers now had praise for Trujillo
as part of the front page, and license plates included the slogan "Viva
Trujillo!" An electric sign was erected in Ciudad Trujillo so that
"Dios y Trujillo" could be seen at night as well as in the day.
Eventually, even churches were required to post the slogan, "Dios en
cielo, Trujillo en tierra" (God in Heaven, Trujillo on Earth). As time
went on, the order of the phrases was reversed (Trujillo on Earth, God
in Heaven). Trujillo was recommended for the Nobel Peace Prize by
his admirers, but the committee declined the suggestion. When he
received (or summoned) a visitor, his four bodyguards would have
submachine guns trained upon the "guest" during the meeting. Trujillo
was eligible to run again in 1938, but, citing the U.S. example of two
presidential terms, he stated that "I voluntarily, and against the
wishes of my people, refuse re-election to the high office." The Dominican Party nominated Trujillo's handpicked successor, 71 year old vice-president Jacinto Bienvenido Peynado.
As the government had banned all other political parties, the election
of Peynado and Manuel de Jesús Troncoso was merely a formality.
Meanwhile, Trujillo limited himself to being the "Generalissimo" while
only nominally ceding control to President Peynado. Peynado increased
the size of the electric "Dios y Trujillo" sign and died on March 7,
1940, with Troncoso serving out the rest of the term. In 1942, with
President Franklin D. Roosevelt having
run for a third term in the United States, Trujillo ran for president
again and won overwhelmingly. He served two terms, having lengthened a
presidential term to five years. In 1952, his brother, Héctor Trujillo, nominally assumed the presidency. His daughter Angelita was designated "queen" of the 1955 Fair of Peace and Fraternity of the Free World,
a pompous event that cost US$30 million. Fair organizers declared
Trujillo's semi-literate wife María Martínez a 'writer
and philosopher'.
Brutal
oppression of actual or perceived members of any opposition was a key
feature of Trujillo's rule right from the beginning in 1930 when his
gang, "The 44", under its leader Miguel Angel Paulino drove through the
street in their red Packard carro de la muerte (death car). Imprisonments and killings were later handled by the SIM, the secret police, efficiently organized by Johnny Abbes. Some cases reached international attention such as the Galindez case and the murder of the Mirabal sisters. Trujillo was known for his open-door policy, accepting Jewish refugees from Europe, Japanese migration during the 1930s, and exiles from Spain following its civil war. He developed a uniquely Dominican policy of racial discrimination, Antihaitianismo ("anti-Haitianism"), targeting the mostly-black inhabitants of his neighboring country and
those within the Platano Curtain, including many darker Dominican
citizens. At the 1938 Evian Conference the
Dominican Republic was the only country willing to accept many Jews and
offered to accept up to 100,000 refugees on generous terms. In
1940 an agreement was signed and Trujillo donated 26,000 acres of his
properties for settlements. The first settlers arrived in May 1940;
eventually some 800 settlers came to Sosua and most moved later on to
the United States.
Refugees
from Europe broadened the Dominican Republic's tax base and added more
whites to the predominately mixed-race nation. The government favored
Caucasian refugees over others while Dominican troops expelled illegal
aliens, resulting in the 1937 Parsley Massacre of Haitian immigrants.
The Trujillo regime greatly expanded the Vedado del Yaque, a nature reserve around the Yaque del Sur River. In 1934 he created the nation's first national park, banned the slash and burn method
of clearing land for agriculture, set up a forest warden agency to
protect the park system, and banned the logging of pine trees without
his permission. While he acted in the name of environmentalism, he
probably wanted to create logging monopolies for his private companies. In
the 1950s the Trujillo regime commissioned a study on the hydroelectric
potential of damming the Dominican Republic's waterways. The commission
concluded that only forested waterways could support hydroelectric
dams, so Trujillo banned logging in potential river watersheds. After
his assassination in 1961, logging resumed in the Dominican Republic.
Squatters burned down the forests for agriculture, and logging
companies clear-cut parks and potential hydroelectric watersheds, thus
reducing the Dominican Republic's potential generation of hydroelectric
energy. In 1967, then-President Joaquín Balaguer launched military strikes against illegal logging. Trujillo's anti-communism tended toward a peaceful coexistence with the United States government. During World War II Trujillo sided with the Allies and
declared war on Germany and Japan on December 11, 1941. While there was
no military participation the Dominican Republic thus became a founding
member of the United Nations. Trujillo encouraged diplomatic and economic ties with the U.S., but his policies often caused friction with other nations of Latin America, especially Costa Rica and Venezuela. He maintained friendly relations with Franco of Spain, Peron of Argentina, and Somoza of Nicaragua. Towards the end of his rule, his relationship with the United States deteriorated. Trujillo
paid special attention to improving the armed forces. Military
personnel received generous pay and perks under his rule, and their
ranks as well as equipment inventories expanded. Trujillo maintained
control over the officer corps through fear, patronage, and the
frequent rotation of assignments, which inhibited the development of
strong personal followings. The establishment of state monopolies over
all major enterprises in the country brought riches to the Trujillos
through price manipulation and embezzlement.
Haiti,
the smaller but more densely populated country of the island, had
invaded and occupied the Dominican Republic from 1822-44. Encroachment
by Haiti was an ongoing process, and when Trujillo took over,
specifically the northeast border region became more and more
"Haitinized". The actual border itself was poorly defined. In 1933 Trujillo met the Haitian President Stenio Vincent to
settle the border issue. By 1936 a settlement was reached and signed.
At the same time, Trujillo tried to plot against the Haitian government
by linking up with General Calixte, Commander of the Garde d'Haiti, and Elie Lescot, at that time the Haitian ambassador in Ciudad Trujillo (Santo Domingo). After the settlement, when further border incursions occurred, the Parsley Massacre was initiated by Trujillo. In
1937, claiming that Haiti was harboring his former Dominican opponents,
Trujillo ordered an attack on the border, slaughtering tens of
thousands of Haitians as they tried to escape. The number of the dead
is still unknown, though it is now calculated between 20,000 and 30,000. Trujillo hoped for a war with Haiti and control over the entire island of Hispaniola.
The Haitian response was muted, but eventually called for an
international investigation. Under pressure from Washington, Trujillo
agreed to a reparation settlement in January 1938 that involved the
payment of US$750,000. By the next year the amount had been reduced to
US$525,000 (US$ 7,955,581.4 in 2010); 30 dollars per victim, of which
only 2 cents were given to survivors, due to corruption in the Haitian
bureaucracy.
In
1941, Lescot, who had received financial support from Trujillo,
succeeded Vincent as President of Haiti. Trujillo expected Lescot to be
a puppet, but Lescot turned against him. Trujillo unsuccessfully tried
to assassinate him in a 1944 plot, and then published their
correspondence and discredited him. Lescot was exiled after a 1946 palace coup. In 1947 Dominican exiles, including Juan Bosch, had concentrated in Cuba. With the approval and support of the Grau government,
an expedition force was trained with the intent to invade the Dominican
Republic and overthrow Trujillo. However, international pressure,
including from the United States, led to the abortion of the expedition. In turn, when Fulgencio Batista was in power, Trujillo initially supported anti-Batista supporters of Prio in Oriente in
1955, however weapons Trujillo sent were soon inherited by Castro's
insurgents when Prio allied with Castro. After 1956, when Trujillo saw
that Castro was
gaining ground, he started to support Batista with money, planes,
equipment, and men. Trujillo, convinced that Batista would prevail, was
very surprised when he showed up as a fugitive after being ousted.
Trujillo kept Batista until August 1959 as a "virtual prisoner". Only after paying between three to four million dollars could Batista leave for Portugal, which had granted him a visa. Castro
made threats to overthrow Trujillo, and Trujillo responded by
increasing the budget for national defense. A foreign legion was formed
to defend Haiti, as it was expected that Castro might invade the
Haitian part of the island first and remove Duvalier as well. A Cuban plane with 56 fighting men landed near Constanza on
Sunday, June 14, 1959, and six days later more invaders brought by two
yachts landed at the north coast. However, the Dominican Army prevailed. In turn, in August 1959, Johnny Abbes attempted to support an anti-Castro group led by Escambray near Trinidad, Cuba. The attempt, however, was thwarted when Cuban troops surprised a plane he had sent when it was unloading its cargo. By
the late 1950s, opposition to Trujillo's regime was starting to build
to a fever pitch. A younger generation of Dominicans had been born who
had no memory of the instability and poverty that had preceded him.
Many clamored for democratization. The Trujillo regime responded with
greater repression. The Military Intelligence Service (SIM) secret
police, led by Johnny Abbes, remained as ubiquitous as before. Other nations ostracized the Dominican Republic, compounding the dictator's paranoia. Trujillo
began to interfere more and more into the domestic affairs of other
neighboring countries. Trujillo expressed great contempt for Venezuela's president Rómulo Betancourt.
An established and outspoken opponent of Trujillo, Betancourt
associated with Dominicans who had plotted against the dictator.
Trujillo developed an obsessive personal hatred of Betancourt and
supported numerous plots of Venezuelan exiles to overthrow him. This
pattern of intervention led the Venezuelan government to take its case
against Trujillo to the Organization of American States (OAS).
This development infuriated Trujillo, who ordered his foreign agents to
plant a bomb inside Betancourt's car. The assassination attempt,
carried out on Friday, June 24, 1960, injured but did not kill the
Venezuelan president. The
Betancourt incident inflamed world opinion against Trujillo. Outraged
OAS members voted unanimously to sever diplomatic relations with
Trujillo's government and impose economic sanctions on the Dominican
Republic. The brutal murder on November 25, 1960 of the three Mirabal sisters,
Patria, María and Minerva, who opposed Trujillo's dictatorship,
further increased discontent against his repressive rule. The
relationship with the dictator had become an embarrassment to the
United States and became fractured after the Betancourt incident. On
the night of Tuesday, May 30, 1961, Trujillo was shot dead on San
Cristobal Avenue, Santo Domingo. He was the victim of an ambush plotted
by Modesto Diaz, Salvador Estrella Sadhalá, Antonio de la Maza,
Amado García Guerrero, Manuel Cáceres Michel (Tunti),
Juan Tomás Diaz, Roberto Pastoriza, Luis Amiama Tió, Antonio Imbert Barrera, Pedro Livio Cedeño, and Huáscar Tejeda. According to U.S. reporter Bernard Diederich, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) planned the operation to kill the dictator. In a report to the Deputy Attorney General of the United States,
CIA officials described the agency as having "no active part" in the
assassination and only a "faint connection" with the groups that
planned the killing. However, an internal CIA memorandum states
that an Office of Inspector General investigation into Trujillo's
murder disclosed "quite extensive Agency involvement with the plotters." G.
Pope Atkins writes that "the CIA arranged, planned and executed the
assassination" using their elite paramilitary operations officers from
the Special Activities Division. Trujillo's family tried to flee with his body upon his boat Angelita,
but were turned back. His funeral was that of a statesman with the long
procession ending in his hometown of San Cristóbal, where his
body was first buried. Then-president Joaquín Balaguer gave
the eulogy. After this, the people voted for the Trujillo family to
leave the country, so his son, Ramfis Trujillo, came back to relocate
his father's body outside of the country. Trujillo was buried in Paris,
in Père Lachaise Cemetery, at the request of his relatives. Trujillo's "central arch" was his instinct for power. This
was coupled with an intense desire for money and the realization that
money was a source and support of power. Up at four in the morning, he
exercised, studied the newspaper, read reports, and completed papers
prior to breakfast; at the office by nine, he continued his work, and
took lunch by noon. After a walk, he continued to work until 7:30 PM.
After dinner, he attended functions, held discussions, or was driven
around incognito in the city "observing and remembering." He
was methodical, punctual, secretive, and guarded, having no true
friends, only associates and acquaintances. For his associates his
actions towards them were unpredictable. Trujillo
and his family amassed enormous wealth. He acquired property including
cattle lands on a grand scale, and went into meat and milk production,
operations that soon evolved into monopolies. Other industries were
salt, sugar, tobacco, lumber, and lottery where he or family members
held controlling interests or monopolies. Already in 1937 Trujillo's
annual income was about $1.5 million;
at the time of his death the state took over 111 Trujillo companies.
His love of fine and ostentatious clothing was displayed in elaborate
uniforms and fine suits of which he collected almost two thousand. Known
to be fond of neckties, he amassed a collection of over ten thousand of
them. Trujillo doused himself with perfume and liked gossip. His sexual
appetite was enormous, and he preferred mulatto women with full bodies,
later tending more to "very young" women. Women
were supplied and procured by many who sought his favors, and later he
had an official on his Palace staff to organize the sessions. Typically
encounters lasted once or twice, but favorites were kept for longer
terms. If women were unwilling to submit, Trujillo would know how to
apply pressure on the family to get his way. Trujillo
was such a baseball lover that he invited many black players from the
US where they could not play because the teams were segregated. Leroy Robert "Satchel" Paige,
a Negro League player, went to the Caribbean and Latin America, where
the teams were all integrated. He pitched for a team organized by
Trujillo. He was trying to gain popularity so he created the "Ciudad
Trujillo Team." He paid Paige $30,000 for winning the Dominican
championship. Paige fled the Dominican Republic with his teammates
directly after being paid for fear of reprisals by Trujillo's enemies. Trujillo
was energetic and fit. Medically, he was quite healthy in general, but
suffered from chronic lower urinary infections and, later, prostate
problems. In 1934, Dr. Georges Marion was called from Paris to perform
3 urologic procedures on Trujillo. Over time Trujillo acquired numerous accommodations. His favorite place was Las Caobas on Estancia Fundacion near San Cristobal. He used Estancia Ramfis (after 1953 it became the Foreign Office), Estancia Rhadames and a home at Playa de Najayo.
Other places he owned he frequented rarely such as places in Santiago,
Constanza, La Cumbre, San Juan de las Matas, and more. Further, he
maintained a penthouse at the Embajador Hotel in the capital. While
Trujillo was a nominally a Catholic, his devotion was limited to a
perfunctory role in public affairs; he placed faith in local
superstitions. There
is much controversy in the Dominican Republic at this time (2009) on
the 48th year anniversary of his death. There is talk of trying to
return the remains of Trujillo to DR and place his body along with the
national heroes. Most of the people are strongly opposed to this idea. |