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William I, Prince of Orange (24 April 1533 – 10 July 1584), also widely known as William the Silent (Dutch: Willem de Zwijger), or simply William of Orange (Dutch: Willem van Oranje), was the main leader of the Dutch revolt against the Spanish that set off the Eighty Years' War and resulted in the formal independence of the United Provinces in 1648. He was born into the House of Nassau as a count of Nassau-Dillenburg. He became Prince of Orange in 1544 and is thereby the founder of the branch House of Orange-Nassau. A wealthy nobleman,
William
originally served the Habsburgs as a member of the court of Margaret
of
Parma, governor of the Spanish
Netherlands. Unhappy with the centralisation of political
power away from the
local estates and with the Spanish persecution of Dutch Protestants, William
joined the Dutch uprising and turned against his former
masters. The most influential and politically capable of the rebels, he
led the Dutch to several successes in the fight against the Spanish.
Declared an outlaw by the Spanish king in
1580, he was assassinated by Balthasar
Gérard (also
written as 'Gerardts') in Delft four years later. William
was born on 24 April 1533 in the castle of Dillenburg in Nassau, Germany.
He
was the eldest son of William,
Count
of Nassau and Juliana
of
Stolberg-Werningerode, and was raised a Lutheran.
He
had four younger brothers and seven younger sisters: John,
Hermanna, Louis, Mary,
Anna,
Elisabeth, Katharine, Juliane, Magdalene, Adolf and Henry. When his
cousin, René
of
Châlon, Prince of Orange, died childless in 1544, the
eleven year old William inherited all Châlon's property,
including the title Prince of Orange, on the condition that he receive
a Roman Catholic education. Besides Châlon's properties, he also
inherited vast estates in the Low Countries (present-day Netherlands
and Belgium). Because of his young age, Holy
Roman
Emperor Charles V served
as
the regent of the principality until William was fit to rule.
William was sent to the Netherlands to receive the required education,
first at the family's estate in Breda,
later
in Brussels under the supervision of Mary
of
Habsburg (Mary
of Hungary), the sister of Charles V and governor
of
the Habsburg Netherlands (Seventeen
Provinces). In Brussels, he was taught foreign languages and received military and diplomatic education under the direction of
Champagney (Jérôme Perrenot), brother of Granvelle. On 6 July
1551, he married Anna
van
Egmond en Buren, the wealthy heir to the lands of her father,
and William gained the titles Lord of Egmond and Count of Buren.
They
had three children. Later that same year, William was appointed captain in the cavalry.
Favoured
by Charles V, he was rapidly promoted, and became commander of
one of the Emperor's armies at age 22. He was made a member of the Raad
van
State, the highest political advisory council in the Netherlands in November 1555, shortly
after Charles had abdicated in favour of his son, Philip
II
of Spain. It was on the shoulder of William that the
gout-afflicted Emperor leaned during his abdication ceremony. His wife
Anna died on 24 March 1558. Later, William had a brief relationship
with Eva Elincx, leading to the birth of their illegitimate son, Justinus
van
Nassau: William officially
recognised him and took responsibility for his education — Justinus
would become an admiral in his later years. In 1559,
Philip appointed William as the stadtholder (governor) of the provinces Holland, Zeeland and Utrecht,
thereby
greatly increasing his political power. A stadtholdership over
Franche-Comté followed in 1561.
Although
he
never directly opposed the Spanish king, William soon became one of
the most prominent members of the opposition in the Council of State,
together with Philip
de
Montmorency, Count of Hoorn and Lamoral,
Count
of Egmont. They were mainly seeking more political power, for
themselves against the de
facto government of Count
Berlaymont, Granvelle and Viglius
of
Aytta, but also for the Dutch nobility and, ostensibly, for the
Estates, and complained that too many Spaniards were involved in
governing the Netherlands. William was also dissatisfied with the
increasing persecution of Protestants in the Netherlands. Brought
up as both a Lutheran and later a Catholic, William was very religious
but still was a proponent of freedom of religion for all people. The inquisition policy in the Netherlands,
carried out by Cardinal
Granvelle, prime minister to the new governor Margaret
of
Parma (1522 – 83)
(natural half-sister to Philip II), increased opposition to the Spanish
rule among the — then mostly Catholic — population of the Netherlands.
Lastly, the members of the opposition wished an end to the presence of
Spanish troops. On 25
August 1561, William of Orange married for the second time. His new
wife, Anna
of
Saxony, was described by contemporaries as "self-absorbed, weak,
assertive, and cruel", and it is generally assumed
that William married her to gain more influence in Saxony, Hesse and the Palatine. The couple had five
children. Up to
1564, any criticism of governmental measures voiced by William and the
other members of the opposition had ostensibly been directed at
Granvelle; however, after the latter's depart early that year, William,
who may have found increasing confidence in his alliance with the
Protestant princes of Germany following his second marriage, began to openly criticize
the King's anti-Protestant politics. In an iconic speech to the Council
of
State, William to the shock of his audience motivated his
conflict with king Philip II by saying that, even though he had decided
for himself to keep to the Catholic faith, he could not approve that
monarchs should desire to rule over the souls of their subjects and
take away from them their freedom of belief and religion. Later, in
his Apology (1580), William stated that
his resolve to oppose the King's policies had originated in June 1559,
when, during a hunting trip to the Bois de Vincennes together with the
duke of Alva and king Henry
II
of France,
to whom both had been sent as hostages to ensure the
proper fulfillment of the conditions of the Treaty of
Cateau-Cambrésis following the Hispano-French war, the latter
two had openly discussed a secret understanding between Philip and
Henry which aimed at the extermination of the Protestants in both
France and the Netherlands; William at that time had kept his silence,
but had decided for himself that he would not allow the slaughter of so
many innocent subjects. In early
1565, a large group of lesser noblemen, including William's younger
brother Louis,
formed
the Confederacy
of
Noblemen. On 5 April, they offered a petition to Margaret of
Parma, requesting an end to the persecution of Protestants. From August
to October 1566, a wave of iconoclasm (known as the Beeldenstorm)
spread
through the Low Countries. Calvinists, Anabaptists and Mennonites,
angry
with their being persecuted by the Roman Catholic Church and
opposed to the Catholic images of saints (which in their eyes
conflicted with the Second
Commandment), destroyed statues in hundreds of churches and monasteries throughout the Netherlands. Following
the Beeldenstorm, unrest in the Netherlands grew, and Margaret agreed
to grant the wishes of the Confederacy, provided the noblemen would
help to restore order. She also allowed more important noblemen,
including William of Orange, to assist the Confederacy. In late 1566,
and early 1567, it became clear that she would not be allowed to
fulfill her promises, and when several minor rebellions failed, many Calvinists (the major Protestant
denomination) and Lutherans fled the country. Following
the announcement that Philip II, unhappy with the situation in the
Netherlands, would dispatch his loyal general Fernando
Álvarez
de Toledo, Duke of Alba (also
known as "The Iron
Duke") to restore order, William laid down his functions and retreated
to his native Nassau in April 1567. He had been (financially) involved
with several of the rebellions.
After
his
arrival in August 1567, Alba established the Council of Troubles (known to the people as the Council of Blood) to
judge those involved with the rebellion and the iconoclasm. William was
one of the 10,000 to be summoned before the Council, but he failed to
appear. He was subsequently declared an outlaw, and his properties were
confiscated. As one of the most prominent and popular politicians of
the Netherlands, William of Orange emerged as the leader of an armed
resistance. He financed the Watergeuzen,
refugee
Protestants who formed bands of corsairs and raided the coastal
cities of the Netherlands (often killing Spanish and Dutch alike). He
also raised an army, consisting mostly of German mercenaries to fight Alba on land.
William allied with the French
Huguenots, following the end the second Religious War in France
when they had troops to spare. Led by his brother Louis,
the army invaded the northern Netherlands in 1568. However the plan
failed almost from the start. The Huguenots were defeated by French
Royal Troops before they could invade, and a small force under Jean de
Villers was captured within two days. Villers gave all the plans of the
campaign to the Spanish following this capture. On 23 May, the army under
the command of Louis won the Battle
of
Heiligerlee in
the northern province of Groningen against a Spanish army led
by the stadtholder of the northern provinces, Jean
de
Ligne, Duke of Aremberg. Aremberg was killed in the battle, as
was William's brother Adolf. Alba countered by killing a number of
convicted noblemen (including the Counts of Egmont and Hoorn on 6
June), and then by leading an expedition to Groningen. There, he
annihilated Louis’ forces on German territory in the Battle
of
Jemmingen on 21
July, although Louis managed to escape. These two battles are now
considered to be the start of the Eighty
Years'
War. William
responded by leading a large army into Brabant,
but
Alba carefully avoided a decisive confrontation, expecting the army
to fall apart quickly. As William advanced, riots broke out in his
army, and with winter approaching and money running out, William
decided to turn back. William made several more
plans to invade in the next few years, but little came of it, lacking
support and money. He remained popular with the public, partially
through an extensive propaganda campaign through pamphlets.
One of his most important claims, with which he attempted to justify
his actions, was that he was not fighting the rightful owner of the
land, the Spanish king, but only the inadequate rule of the foreign
governors in the Netherlands, and the presence of foreign soldiers. On
1 April 1572 a band of Watergeuzen captured the city of Brielle,
which
had been left unattended by the Spanish garrison. Contrary to
their normal "hit and run" tactics, they occupied the town and claimed
it for the prince by raising the Prince of Orange's flag above the city. This event was followed by
other cities in opening their gates for the Watergeuzen, and soon most
cities in Holland and Zeeland were in the hands of the rebels, notable exceptions being Amsterdam and Middelburg.
The
rebel cities then called a meeting of the Staten
Generaal (which
they were technically unqualified to do), and reinstated William as the
stadtholder of Holland and Zeeland. Concurrently,
rebel
armies captured cities throughout the entire country, from Deventer to Mons.
William
himself then advanced with his own army and marched into
several cities in the south, including Roermond and Leuven.
William
had counted on intervention from the French Protestants (Huguenots)
as
well, but this plan was thwarted after the St.
Bartholomew's
Day Massacre on
24 August, which signalled the start of a wave of violence against the
Huguenots. After a successful Spanish attack on his army, William had
to flee and he retreated to Enkhuizen,
in
Holland. The Spanish then organised countermeasures, and sacked
several rebel cities, sometimes massacring their inhabitants, such as in Mechelen or Zutphen.
They
had more trouble with the cities in Holland, where they took Haarlem after seven
months and a loss of 8,000 soldiers, and they had to give up their siege of Alkmaar. In 1573,
William went over to the Calvinist Church. In 1574,
William's armies won several minor battles, including several naval
encounters. The Spanish, lead by Don Luis
de
Zúñiga y Requesens since
Philip replaced Alba
in 1573, also had their successes. Their decisive victory in the Battle
of
Mookerheyde in
the south east, on the Meuse embankment, on 14 April
cost the lives of two of William's brothers, Louis and Henry.
Requesens's armies also besieged the city of Leiden.
They
broke up their siege when nearby dykes were cut by the Dutch.
William was very content with the victory, and established the University
of
Leiden, the first university in the Northern Provinces. William
had his previous marriage legally disbanded in 1571, on claims that his
wife Anna was insane. He then married for the third time on 24 April
1575 to Charlotte
de
Bourbon-Monpensier, a former French nun,
who
was also popular with the public. Together, they had six daughters. After
failed peace negotiations in Breda in 1575, the war lingered
on. The situation improved for the rebels when Don Requesens died
unexpectedly in March 1576, and a large group of Spanish soldiers, not
having received their salary in months, mutinied in November of that year and unleashed
the
Spanish Fury on the city of Antwerp, a tremendous propaganda
coup for the Dutch
Revolt. While the new governor, Don
John
of Austria, was under way, William of Orange managed to have
most of the provinces and cities sign the Pacification of
Ghent,
in which they declared to fight for the expulsion of
Spanish troops together. However, he failed to achieve unity in matters
of religion. Catholic cities and provinces would not allow freedom for
Calvinists, and vice versa. When Don
John signed the Perpetual
Edict in February
1577, promising to comply with the conditions of the Pacification of
Ghent, it seemed that the war had been decided in favour of the rebels.
However, after Don John took the city of Namur in
1577, the uprising
spread throughout the entire Netherlands. Don John attempted to
negotiate peace, but the prince intentionally let the negotiations
fail. On 24 September 1577, he made his triumphal entry in the capital
Brussels. At the same time, Calvinist rebels grew more radical, and
attempted to forbid Catholicism in their areas of control. William was
opposed to this both for personal and political reasons. He desired
freedom of religion, and he also needed the support of the less radical
Protestants and Catholics to reach his political goals. On 6 January
1579, several southern provinces, unhappy with William's radical
following, sealed the Treaty
of
Arras, in which they agreed to accept their governor, Alessandro
Farnese,
Duke of Parma (who
had succeeded Don John). Five
northern provinces, later followed by most cities in Brabant and Flanders,
then
signed the Union
of
Utrecht on 23
January, confirming their unity. William was initially opposed to the
Union, as he still hoped to unite all provinces. Nevertheless, he
formally gave his support on 3 May. The Union of Utrecht would later
become a de facto constitution,
and
would remain the only formal connection between the Dutch provinces
until 1795. In spite
of the renewed union, the Duke of Parma was successful in reconquering
most of the southern part of the Netherlands. Because he had agreed to
remove the Spanish troops from the provinces under the Treaty of Arras,
and because Philip II needed them elsewhere subsequently, the Duke of
Parma was unable to advance any further until the end of 1581. In the
mean time, William and his supporters were looking for foreign support.
The prince had already sought French assistance on several occasions,
and this time he managed to gain the support of François,
Duke
of Anjou, brother of king Henry
III
of France. On September 29, 1580, the Staten Generaal (with the
exception of Zeeland and Holland) signed the Treaty
of
Plessis-les-Tours with
the
Duke of Anjou. The Duke would gain the title "Protector of the
Liberty of the Netherlands" and become the new sovereign. This,
however, required that the Staten Generaal and William would let go of
their formal support of the King of Spain, which they had maintained
officially up to that moment. On 22
July 1581, the Staten Generaal declared their decision to no longer
recognise Philip II as their king, in the Act
of
Abjuration. This formal declaration
of
independence enabled
the
Duke of Anjou to come to the aid of the resisters. He did not
arrive until 10 February 1582, when he was officially welcomed by
William in Flushing.
On
18 March, the Spaniard Juan
de
Jáuregui attempted
to
assassinate William in Antwerp.
Although
William suffered severe injuries, he survived thanks to the
care of his wife Charlotte and his sister Mary. While William slowly
recovered, the intensive care by Charlotte took its toll, and she died
on 5 May. The Duke of Anjou was not very popular with the population.
The provinces of Zeeland and Holland refused to recognise him as their
sovereign, and William was widely criticised for what were called his
"French politics". When the Anjou's French troops arrived in late 1582,
William's plan seemed to pay off, as even the Duke of Parma feared that
the Dutch would now gain the upper hand. However,
the Duke of Anjou himself was displeased with his limited power, and
decided to take the city of Antwerp by force on 18 January 1583. The citizens, who were warned in time, defended their city in
what is known as the "French
Fury". Anjou's entire army was killed, and he received reprimands
from both Catherine
de
Medici and Elizabeth
I
of England (who
he had courted). The position of Anjou after this attack became
impossible to hold, and he eventually left the country in June. His
leave also discredited William, who nevertheless maintained his support
for Anjou. He stood virtually alone on this issue, and became
politically isolated. Holland and Zeeland nevertheless maintained him
as their stadtholder, and attempted to declare him count of Holland and
Zeeland, thus making him the official sovereign. In the middle of all
this, William had married for the fourth and final time on 12 April
1583 to Louise
de
Coligny, a French Huguenot and daughter of Gaspard
de
Coligny. She would be the mother of Frederick
Henry (1584 – 1647),
William's fourth legitimate son. The
Catholic Frenchman Balthasar
Gérard (born
1557) was a supporter of Philip II, and in his opinion, William of
Orange had betrayed the Spanish king and the Catholic religion. After
Philip II declared William an outlaw and promised a reward of 25,000
crowns for his assassination, and of which Gérard learned in
1581, he decided to travel to the Netherlands to kill William. He
served in the army of the governor of Luxembourg, Peter
Ernst
I von Mansfeld-Vorderort for
two
years, hoping to get close to William when the armies met. This
never happened, and Gérard left the army in 1584. He went to the
Duke of Parma to present his plans, but the Duke was unimpressed. In
May 1584, he presented himself to William as a French nobleman, and
gave him the seal of the Count of Mansfelt. This seal would allow for
forgeries of messages of Mansfelt. William sent Gérard back to France to pass the seal to his
French allies. Gérard
returned
in July, having bought pistols on his return voyage. On 10
July, he made an appointment with William of Orange in his home in Delft,
nowadays known as the Prinsenhof.
That
day, William was having dinner with his guest Rombertus
van
Uylenburgh. After William left the dining room and climbed down
the stairs, Van Uylenburgh heard how Gérard shot William in the
chest from close range. Gérard fled to collect his reward. According
to official records, William's last words are
said to have been: Gérard
was
caught before he could flee Delft, and imprisoned. He was tortured
before his trial on 13 July, where he was sentenced to be brutally —
even by the standards of that time — killed. The magistrates sentenced
that the right hand of Gérard should be burned off with a
red-hot iron, that his flesh should be torn from his bones with pincers
in six different places, that he should be quartered and disemboweled alive,
that his heart should be torn from his bosom and flung in his face, and
that, finally, his head should be cut off. Traditionally,
members
of the Nassau family were buried in Breda,
but
as that city was in Spanish hands when William died, he was buried in the New
Church in Delft.
His
grave monument was originally very sober, but it was replaced in
1623 by a new one, made by Hendrik de
Keyser and his
son Pieter. Since then, most of the members of the House
of
Orange-Nassau, including all Dutch
monarchs have been
buried in the same church. His great-grandson William
the
third, King of England and Scotland and Stadtholder in the
Netherlands was buried in Westminster
Abbey According
to British historian of science Lisa
Jardine, he is reputed to be the first world head
of
state assassinated
through use of a handgun, though
this is debatable since William was not officially head of
state, and the Scottish Regent
Moray was shot 13
years earlier. Philip
William, William's eldest son from his first marriage, to Anna
of
Egmond, succeeded him as Prince
of
Orange at the
suggestion of Johan
van
Oldenbarneveldt. Phillip William died in Brussels on 20
February 1618 and was succeeded by his half-brother Maurice,
the eldest son from William's second marriage, to Anna
of
Saxony, who became Prince of Orange. A strong military leader,
he won several victories over the Spanish. Van Oldenbarneveldt managed
to sign a very favourable twelve-year armistice in 1609, although
Maurice was unhappy with this. Maurice was a heavy drinker and died on
23 April 1625 from liver disease. Maurice had several sons with Margaretha van Mechelen, but he never married her. So, Frederick
Henry,
Maurice's half-brother (and William's youngest son from his fourth
marriage, to Louise de Coligny) inherited the title of Prince of
Orange. Frederick
Henry continued the
battle against the Spanish. Frederick
Henry died on 14
March 1647 and is buried with his father William "The Silent" in Nieuwe
Kerk, Delft. The Netherlands became
formally independent after the Peace
of
Westphalia in
1648. The son
of Frederick Henry, William
II
of Orange succeeded
his father as stadtholder, as did his son, William
III
of Orange. The latter also became king
of
England, Scotland and Ireland from 1689. Although he was
married to Mary
II, Queen of Scotland and England for 17 years, he died childless
in 1702. He appointed his cousin Johan Willem Friso (William's
great-great-great-grandson) as his successor. Because Albertine Agnes,
a daughter of Frederick Henry, married William Frederik of
Nassau-Dietz, the present royal house of the Netherlands descends from
William the Silent through the female line. As the chief financer and political and
military leader of the early years of the Dutch revolt, William is
considered a national hero in the Netherlands, even though he was born
in Germany, and usually spoke French.
Many
of the Dutch national symbols can be traced back to William of
Orange: |