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James Abbott McNeill Whistler (July 10, 1834 – July 17, 1903) was an American-born, British-based artist. Averse to sentimentality and moral allusion in painting, he was a leading proponent of the credo "art for art's sake". His famous signature for his paintings was in the shape of a stylized butterfly possessing a long stinger for a tail. The symbol was apt, for it combined both aspects of his personality — his art was characterized by a subtle delicacy, while his public persona was combative. Finding a parallel between painting and music, Whistler titled many of his paintings "arrangements", "harmonies", and "nocturnes", emphasizing the primacy of tonal harmony. His most famous painting is the iconic Whistler's Mother (1871), the revered and oft parodied portrait of motherhood. A wit, dandy, and shameless self-promoter, Whistler influenced the art world and the broader culture of his time with his artistic theories and his friendships with leading artists and writers. Whistler was born in Lowell, Massachusetts. He was the first child born to George Washington Whistler, a prominent engineer, and Anna Matilda McNeill (his father's second wife). At the Ruskin trial (see below), Whistler claimed the more exotic St. Petersburg, Russia, as his birthplace: "I shall be born when and where I want, and I do not choose to be born in Lowell", he declared. In later years, he would play up his mother's connection to Southern roots, and present himself as an impoverished Southern aristocrat
(although to what extent he truly sympathized with the Southern cause
during the American Civil War remains unclear).
Young
Whistler was a moody child prone to fits of temper and insolence, who
after bouts of ill-health often drifted into periods of laziness. His
parents discovered in his early youth that drawing often settled him
down and helped focus his attention. Beginning
in 1842, his father was employed to work on a railroad in Russia. After
moving to St. Petersburg to join his father a year later, the young
Whistler took private art lessons, then enrolled in the Imperial Academy of Fine Arts at age 11. The
young artist followed the traditional curriculum of drawing from
plaster casts and occasional live models, reveled in the atmosphere of
art talk with older peers, and pleased his parents with a first-class
mark in anatomy. In 1844, he met the noted artist Sir William Allan, who came to Russia with a commission to paint a history of the life of Peter the Great.
Whistler's mother noted in her diary, "the great artist remarked to me
‘Your little boy has uncommon genius, but do not urge him beyond his
inclination.’" In 1847-8, his family spent some time in London with relatives, while his father stayed in Russia. Whistler's brother-in-law Francis Haden,
a physician who was also an artist, spurred his interest in art and
photography. Haden took Whistler to visit collectors and to lectures,
and gave him a watercolor set with instruction. Whistler was already
imagining an art career. He began to collect books on art and he
studied other artists’ technique. When his portrait was painted by Sir William Boxall in
1848, the young Whistler exclaimed that the portrait was "very much
like me and a very fine picture. Mr. Boxall is a beautiful colourist…It
is a beautiful creamy surface, and looks so rich." In
his blossoming enthusiasm for art, at fifteen, he informed his father
by letter of his future direction, "I hope, dear father, you will not
object to my choice." His father, however, died from cholera at the age of forty-nine, and the Whistler family moved back to his mother's hometown of Pomfret, Connecticut.
His art plans remained vague and his future uncertain. The family lived
frugally and managed to get by on a limited income. His cousin reported
that Whistler at that time was "slight, with a pensive, delicate face,
shaded by soft brown curls… he had a somewhat foreign appearance and
manner, which, aided by natural abilities, made him very charming, even
at that age." Whistler was sent to Christ Church Hall School with his mother's hopes that he would become a minister. Whistler was seldom without his sketchbook and was popular with his classmates for his caricatures. However, after it became clear that a career in religion did not suit him, he applied to the United States Military Academy at
West Point, where his father had once taught drawing, and other
relatives had attended. On the strength of his family name, and despite
his extreme nearsightedness and poor health history, he was admitted to
the highly selective institution. However,
during his three years there, his grades were barely satisfactory, and
he was a sorry sight at drill and dress. Known as "Curly" for his hair
length which exceeded regulations, Whistler bucked authority, spouted
sarcastic comments, and racked up demerits. His major accomplishment
was learning drawing and mapmaking from American artist Robert W. Weir. His
departure from West Point seems to have been precipitated by a failure
in a chemistry exam where, when asked to describe silicon began by
saying "Silicon is a gas." As he himself put it later: "If silicon were
a gas, I would have been a general one day." However, a separate
anecdote suggests misconduct in drawing class as the reason for
Whistler's departure. After West Point, Whistler worked as draftsman mapping the entire U.S. coast for military and maritime purposes. He
found the work boring and he was frequently late or absent. He spent
much of his free time playing billiards and idling about, was always
broke, and though a charmer, had little acquaintance with women. After
it was discovered that he was drawing sea serpents, mermaids, and
whales on the margins of the maps, he was transferred to the etching
division of the U.S. Coast Survey. Though he lasted there only two
months, he learned etching technique which later proved valuable to his
career.
At
this point, Whistler firmly decided that art would be his future. For a
few months he lived in Baltimore with wealthy friend Tom Winans, who
even furnished Whistler with a studio and some spending cash. The young
artist made some valuable contacts in the art community and also sold
some early paintings to Winans. Whistler turned down his mother's
suggestions for other more practical careers and informed her that with
money from Winans, he was setting out to further his art training in
Paris. Whistler would never return to the United States. Whistler
arrived in Paris in 1855, rented a studio in the Latin Quarter, and
quickly adopted the life of a bohemian artist. Soon, he had a French
girlfriend, a dressmaker named Héloise. He
studied traditional art methods for a short time at the Ecole
Impériale and at the atelier of Charles Gabriel Gleyre. The
latter was a great advocate of the work of Ingres,
and impressed Whistler with two principles that he used for the rest of
his career: line is more important than color and that black is the
fundamental color of tonal harmony. Twenty years later, the Impressionists would largely overthrow this philosophy, banning black and brown as "forbidden colors" and emphasizing color over form. Whistler preferred self-study (including copying at the Louvre) and enjoying the café life. While
letters from home reported his mother's efforts at economy, Whistler
spent freely, sold little or nothing in his first year in Paris, and
was in steady debt. To relieve the situation, he took to painting and selling copies he made at the Louvre and
finally moved to cheaper quarters. As luck would have it, the arrival
in Paris of George Lucas, another rich friend, helped stabilize
Whistler's finances for awhile. In spite of a financial respite, the
winter of 1857 was a difficult one for Whistler. His poor health, made
worse by excessive smoking and drinking, laid him low. Conditions
improved during the summer of 1858. Whistler recovered and traveled
with fellow artist Ernest Delannoy through France and the Rhineland. He
later produced a group of etchings known as "The French Set", with the
help of French master printer Auguste Delâtre. During that year,
he painted his first self-portrait, "Portrait of Whistler with Hat", a
dark and thickly rendered work reminiscent of Rembrandt. But the event of greatest consequence that year was his friendship with Henri Fantin-Latour, whom he met at the Louvre. Through him, Whistler was introduced to the circle of Gustave Courbet, which included Carolus-Duran (later the teacher of John Singer Sargent), Alphonse Legros, and Édouard Manet. Also in this group was Charles Baudelaire,
whose ideas and theories of "modern" art influenced Whistler.
Baudelaire challenged artists to scrutinize the brutality of life and
nature and portray it faithfully, avoiding the old themes of mythology
and allegory. Théophile Gautier,
one of the first to explore translational qualities among art and
music, may have inspired Whistler to view art in musical terms. Reflecting the banner of realism of his adopted circle, Whistler painted his first exhibited work, La Mere Gerard in 1858. He followed it by painting At the Piano in 1859 in London, which he adopted as his home, while also regularly visiting friends in France. At the Piano is
a portrait done of his niece and her mother in their London music room,
an effort which clearly displayed his talent and promise. A critic
wrote, "[despite] a recklessly bold manner and sketchiness of the
wildest and roughest kind, [it has] a genuine feeling for colour and a
splendid power of composition and design, which evince a just
appreciation of nature very rare amongst artists." The
work is unsentimental and effectively contrasts the mother in black and
the daughter in white, with other colors kept restrained in the manner
advised by his teacher Gleyre. It was displayed at the Royal Academy
the following year, and in many exhibits to come. In
a second painting done in the same room, Whistler demonstrated his
natural inclination toward innovation and novelty by fashioning a genre
scene with unusual composition and foreshortening. It was later
re-titled Harmony in Green and Rose: The Music Room. This
painting also demonstrated Whistler's ongoing work pattern, especially
with portraits: a quick start, major adjustments, a period of neglect,
then a final flurry to the finish. After a year in London, as counterpoint to his 1858 French set, in 1860, he produced another set of etchings called Thames Set, as well as some early impressionistic work, including The Thames in Ice. At this stage, he was beginning to establish his technique of tonal harmony based on a limited, pre-determined palette. In 1861, after returning to Paris for a time, Whistler painted his first famous work, Symphony in White, No. 1: The White Girl. The portrait of his mistress and business manager Joanna Hiffernan
was
created as a simple study in white; however, others saw it differently.
The critic Jules Castagnary thought the painting an allegory of a new
bride's lost innocence. Others linked it to Wilkie Collins’ The Woman in White, a popular novel of the time, or various other literary sources. In England, some considered it a painting in the Pre-Raphaelite manner. In
the painting, Hiffernan holds a lily in her left hand and stands upon a
bear skin rug (interpreted by some to represent masculinity and lust)
with the bear's head staring menacingly at the viewer. The portrait was
refused for exhibition at the conservative Royal Academy but in 1863 it
was accepted at the Salon des Refusés in Paris, an event sponsored by Emperor Napoleon III for the exhibition of works rejected from the Salon. Whistler's painting was widely noticed though upstaged by Manet's more shocking painting Le déjeuner sur l'herbe.
Countering criticism by traditionalists, Whistler's supporters insisted
that the painting was "an apparition with a spiritual content" and that
it epitomized his theory that art should essentially be concerned with
the arrangement of colors in harmony, not with a literal portrayal of
the natural world. Two
years later, Whistler painted another portrait of Hiffernan in white,
this time displaying his new found interest in Asian motifs, which he
titled The Little White Girl. His Lady of the Land Lijsen and The Golden Screen, both completed in 1864, again portray his mistress, in even more emphatic Asian dress and surroundings. During this period Whistler became close to Courbet,
the early leader of the French realist school, but when Hiffernan
modeled in the nude for Courbet, Whistler became enraged and his
relationship with Hiffernan began to fall apart. In
January 1864, Whistler's very religious and very proper mother arrived
in London, upsetting her son's bohemian existence and temporarily
exacerbating family tensions. As he wrote to Henri Fantin-Latour,
"General upheaval!! I had to empty my house and purify it from cellar
to eaves." He also immediately moved Hiffernan to another location. In 1866, Whistler decided to visit Valparaiso, Chile,
a journey that has puzzled scholars, though Whistler stated that he did
it for political reasons. Chile was at war with Spain and perhaps
Whistler thought it a heroic struggle of a small nation against a
larger one, but no evidence supports that theory. What
the journey did produce was Whistler's first three nocturnal
paintings — which he termed "moonlights" and later re-titled as
"nocturnes" — night scenes of the harbor painted with a blue or light
green palette. After he returned to London, he painted several more
nocturnes over the next ten years, many of the River Thames and
of Cremorne Gardens, a pleasure park famous for its frequent fireworks
displays, which presented a novel challenge to paint. In his maritime
nocturnes, Whistler used highly thinned paint as a ground with lightly
flicked color to suggest ships, lights, and shore line. Some of the Thames paintings also show compositional and thematic similarities with the Japanese prints of Hiroshige. In 1872, Whistler credited his patron Frederick Leyland, an amateur musician devoted to Chopin, for the musically inspired titles. I
say I can’t thank you too much for the name ‘Nocturne’ as a title for
my moonlights! You have no idea what an irritation it proves to the
critics and consequent pleasure to me — besides it is really so charming
and does so poetically say all that I want to say and no more than I wish! At that point, Whistler painted another self portrait and titled it Arrangement in Gray: Portrait of the Painter (c.
1872), and he also began to re-title many of his earlier works using
terms associated with music, such as a "nocturne", "symphony",
"harmony", "study" or "arrangement", to emphasize the tonal qualities
and the composition and to de-emphasize the narrative content. Whistler's nocturnes were among his most innovative works. Furthermore, his submission of several nocturnes to art dealer Paul Durand-Ruel after the Franco-Prussian War gave Whistler the opportunity to explain his evolving "theory in art" to artists, buyers and critics in France. His
good friend Fantin-Latour, growing more reactionary in his opinions,
especially in his negativity concerning the emerging Impressionist
school, found Whistler's new works surprising and confounding.
Fantin-Latour admitted, "I don’t understand anything there; it's
bizarre how one changes. I don’t recognize him anymore." Their
relationship was nearly at an end by then but they continued to share
opinions in occasional correspondence. When Degas invited Whistler to exhibit with the first show by the Impressionists in 1874, Whistler turned down the invitation, as did Manet, and some scholars attributed this in part to Fantin-Latour's influence on both men.
The Franco-Prussian War of 1870 fragmented the French art community. Many artists took refuge in England, joining Whistler, including Pissarro and Monet, while Manet and Degas stayed
in France. Like Whistler, Monet and Pissarro both focused their efforts
on views of the city, and it is likely that Whistler was exposed to the
evolution of Impressionism founded by these artists and that they had seen his nocturnes. Whistler was drifting away from Courbet's "damned realism" and their friendship had wilted, as had his liaison with Jo. By
1871, Whistler returned to portraits and soon produced his most famous
painting, the nearly monochromatic full-length figure titled Arrangement in Gray and Black: Portrait of the Artist's Mother, but usually referred to as Whistler's Mother.
According to a letter from his mother, one day after a model failed to
appear, Whistler turned to his mother and suggested he do her portrait.
In his typically slow and experimental way, at first he had her stand
but that proved too tiring so the famous profile pose was adopted. It
took dozens of sittings to complete. The
austere portrait in his normally constrained palette is another
Whistler exercise in tonal harmony and composition. The deceptively
simple design is in fact a balancing act of differing shapes,
particularly rectangles of the curtain, picture on the wall, wall and
floor which stabilize the curve of her face, dress, and chair. Again,
though his mother is the subject, Whistler commented that the narrative
was of little importance. In
reality, however, it was a homage to his pious mother. After the
initial shock of her moving in with her son, she aided him considerably
by stabilizing his behavior somewhat, tending to his domestic needs,
and providing an aura of conservative respectability that helped win
over patrons. Mostly
due to its anti-Victorian simplicity during a time in England when
sentimentality and fussy decoration were in vogue, the public reacted
negatively. Critics thought the painting a failed "experiment" rather
than art. The Royal Academy rejected it, then grudgingly accepted it
after lobbying by Sir William Boxall — but then hung the painting in an
unfavorable location at its exhibition. From the start, Whistler's Mother sparked
varying reactions, including parody, ridicule, and reverence, which
have continued to today. While some saw it as "the dignified feeling of
old ladyhood", "a grave sentiment of mourning", or a "perfect symbol of
motherhood", others employed it as a fitting vehicle for mockery. It
has been satirized in endless variation in greeting cards and
magazines, and by cartoon characters such as Donald Duck and Bullwinkle the Moose. Whistler
did his part in promoting the picture and popularizing the image. He
frequently exhibited it and authorized the early reproductions that
made their way into thousands of homes. The painting narrowly escaped being burnt in a fire aboard a train during shipping. Later
the painting was purchased by the French government, the first Whistler
work in a public collection, and is now housed in the Musée d'Orsay in Paris. During
the Depression, the picture was billed as "million dollar" painting and
was a big hit at the Chicago World's Fair. It was accepted as a
universal icon of motherhood by the worldwide public, which was not
particularly aware or concerned with Whistler's aesthetic theories. In
public recognition of its status and popularity, the United States
issued a postage stamp in 1934 featuring an adaptation of the painting. In summing up the painting's impact author Martha Tedeschi has stated: " Whistler's Mother, Wood's American Gothic, Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa and Edvard Munch's The Scream have
all achieved something that most paintings — regardless of their art
historical importance, beauty, or monetary value — have not: they
communicate a specific meaning almost immediately to almost every
viewer. These few works have successfully made the transition from the
elite realm of the museum visitor to the enormous venue of popular
culture." Other important portraits by Whistler include those of Thomas Carlyle (historian, 1873), Maud Franklin (his mistress, 1876), Cicely Alexander (daughter of a London banker, 1873), Lady Meux (socialite, 1882), and Théodore Duret (critic, 1884). In the 1870s, Whistler painted full length portraits of F.R. Leyland and his wife Elinor. Leyland subsequently commissioned the artist to decorate his dining room. Whistler
had been disappointed over the irregular acceptance of his works for
the Royal Academy exhibitions and the poor hanging and placement of his
paintings. In response, Whistler staged his first one-man show in 1874.
The show was notable and noticed, however, for Whistler's design and
decoration of the hall which harmonized well with the paintings, in
keeping with his art theories. A reviewer wrote, "The visitor is
struck, on entering the gallery, with a curious sense of harmony and
fitness pervading it, and is more interested, perhaps, in the general
effect than in any one work." Whistler was not as successful a portrait painter as the other famous expatriate American John Singer Sargent.
Whistler's spare technique and his disinclination to flatter his
sitters, as well as his notoriety may account for this. He also worked
very slowly and demanded extraordinarily long sittings. William Merritt Chase complained
of his sitting for a portrait by Whistler, "He proved to be a veritable
tyrant, painting every day into the twilight, while my limbs ached with
weariness and my head swam dizzily. ‘Don’t move! Don’t move!’ he would
scream whenever I started to rest." By the time he gained widespread acceptance in the 1890s, Whistler was past his prime as a portrait painter. Whistler's
approach to portraiture in his late maturity was described by one of
his sitters, Arthur J. Eddy, who posed for the artist in 1894: He
worked with great rapidity and long hours, but he used his colours thin
and covered the canvas with innumerable coats of paint. The colours
increased in depth and intensity as the work progressed. At first the
entire figure was painted in greyish-brown tones, with very little
flesh colour, the whole blending perfectly with the greyish-brown of
the prepared canvas; then the entire background would be intensified a
little; then the figure made a little stronger; then the background,
and so on from day to day and week to week, and often from month to
month.... And so the portrait would really grow, really develop as an
entirety, very much as a negative under the action of the chemicals
comes out gradually -- light, shadows, and all from the very first
faint
indications to their full values. It was as if the portrait were hidden
within the canvas and the master by passing his wands day after day
over the surface evoked the image. A
supremely gifted engraver, Whistler produced numerous etchings,
lithographs, and dry-points. His lithographs, some drawn on stone,
others drawn directly on "lithographie" paper, are perhaps half as
numerous as his etchings. Some of the lithographs are of figures
slightly draped; two or three of the very finest are of Thames subjects — including a "nocturne" at Limehouse; while others depict the Faubourg Saint-Germain in Paris, and Georgian churches in Soho and Bloomsbury in London. The etchings include portraits of family, mistresses, and intimate street scenes in London and Venice.
Whistler's
famous butterfly signature first developed in the 1860s out of his
interest in Asian art. He studied the potter's marks on the china he
had begun to collect and decided to design a monogram of his initials.
Over time this evolved into the shape of an abstract butterfly. By
around 1880, he added a stinger to the butterfly image to create a mark
representing both his gentle, sensitive nature and his provocative,
feisty spirit. He
took great care in the appropriate placement of the image on both his
paintings and his custom made frames. His focus on the importance of
balance and harmony extended beyond the frame to the placement of his
paintings to their settings, and further to the design of an entire
architectural element, as in the Peacock Room. Harmony in Blue and Gold: The Peacock Room is Whistler's masterpiece of interior decorative mural art.
He painted the paneled room in a rich and unified palette of brilliant
blue-greens with over-glazing and metallic gold leaf. Painted in
1876 - 1877, it is now considered a high example of the Anglo-Japanese style.
Unhappy
with the first decorative result by another artist, Leyland left the
room in Whistler's care to make minor changes, "to harmonize" the room
whose primary purpose was to display Leyland's china collection.
However, Whistler let his imagination run wild, "Well, you know, I just
painted on. I went on — without design or sketch — putting in every
touch
with such freedom… And the harmony in blue and gold developing, you
know, I forgot everything in my joy of it." Upon
returning, Leyland was shocked by the "improvements". Artist and patron
quarreled so violently over the room and the proper compensation for
the work that the important relationship for Whistler was terminated.
At one point, Whistler gained access to Leyland's home and painted two
fighting peacocks meant to represent the artist and his patron; one
holds a paint brush and the other holds a bag of money. Whistler
is reported to have said to Leyland, "Ah, I have made you famous. My
work will live when you are forgotten. Still, per chance, in the dim
ages to come you will be remembered as the proprietor of the Peacock
Room." Adding to the emotional drama was Whistler's fondness for Leyland's wife, Frances, who separated from her husband in 1879. Having acquired the centerpiece of the room, Whistler's painting of The Princess from the Land of Porcelain, American industrialist and aesthete Charles Lang Freer purchased the entire room in 1904 and had it installed in a room in his Detroit mansion. After Freer's death in 1919, the Peacock Room was permanently installed in the Freer Gallery of Art at the Smithsonian in Washington, D.C.. The gallery opened to the public in 1923. In 1877 Whistler sued the critic John Ruskin for libel after the critic condemned his painting Nocturne in Black and Gold: The Falling Rocket. Whistler exhibited the work in the Grosvenor Gallery, an alternative to the Royal Academy exhibition, alongside Edward Burne-Jones and other artists. Ruskin, who had been a champion of the Pre-Raphaelites and J.M.W. Turner, reviewed Whistler's work in his publication Fors Clavigera on July 2, 1877. Ruskin praised Burne-Jones, while he attacked Whistler: For Mr. Whistler's own sake, no less than for the protection of the purchaser, Sir Coutts Lindsay [founder of the Grosvenor Gallery]
ought not to have admitted works into the gallery in which the
ill-educated conceit of the artist so nearly approached the aspect of
willful imposture. I have seen, and heard, much of Cockney impudence
before now; but never expected to hear a coxcomb ask two hundred guineas for flinging a pot of paint in the public's face. Whistler,
seeing the attack in the newspaper, replied to his friend George
Boughton, "It is the most debased style of criticism I have had thrown
at me yet." He then went to his solicitor and drew up a writ for libel
which was served to Ruskin. Whistler
hoped to recover £1,000 plus the costs of the action. The case
came to trial the following year after delays caused by Ruskin's bouts
of mental illness, while Whistler's financial condition continued to
deteriorate. It was heard at the Queen's Bench of the High Courtfrom November 25 to 26, 1878. The lawyer for John Ruskin, Attorney General Sir John Holker, cross examined Whistler: Whistler
had counted on many artists to take his side as witnesses but they
refused fearing damage to their reputations. The other witnesses for
him were unconvincing and the jury's own reaction to the work was
derisive. With Ruskin's witnesses more impressive, including Edward Burne-Jones,
and with Ruskin absent for medical reasons, Whistler's counter attack
was ineffective. Nonetheless, the jury reached a verdict in favor of
Whistler but awarded a mere farthing in nominal damages, and the court
costs were split. The cost of the case, together with huge debts from building his residence ("The White House" in Tite Street, Chelsea, designed with E. W. Godwin, 1877–8), bankrupted him by May 1879, resulting in an auction of his work, collections, and house. Stansky notes the irony that the Fine Art Society of London, which had organized a collection to pay for Ruskin's legal costs, supported him in etching "the stones of Venice" (and in exhibiting the series in 1883) which helped recoup Whistler's costs. Whistler published his account of the trial in the pamphlet Whistler v. Ruskin: Art and Art Critics in
December 1878, soon after the trial. Whistler's grand hope that the
publicity of the trial would rescue his career was dashed as patrons
avoided him for years to come. Among his creditors was Leyland, who
oversaw the sale of Whistler's possessions. Whistler made various caricatures of his former patron, including a biting satirical painting called The Gold Scab, just after Whistler declared bankruptcy. Whistler always blamed Leyland for his financial downfall. After
the trial, Whistler received a commission to do twelve etchings in
Venice. He eagerly accepted the assignment, and with girlfriend Maud
arrived in the city, taking rooms in a dilapidated palazzo they shared
with other artists, including John Singer Sargent. Though homesick for London, he adapted to Venice and set about discovering its
character. He did his best to distract himself from the gloom of his
financial affairs and the pending sale of all his goods at Sotheby's.
He was a regular guest at parties at the American consulate, and with
his usual wit, enchanted the guests with verbal flourishes such as "the
artist's only positive virtue is idleness — and there are so few who are
gifted at it." His new friends reported, on the contrary, that Whistler rose early and put in a full day of effort. He
wrote to a friend, "I have learned to know Venice in Venice that the
others never seem to have perceived, and which, if I bring back with me
as I propose, will far more than compensate for all annoyances delays
& vexations of spirit." The
three month assignment stretched to fourteen months. During this
exceptionally productive period, Whistler finished over fifty etchings,
several nocturnes, some watercolors, and over 100 pastels — illustrating
both the moods of Venice and its fine architectural details. Furthermore, Whistler influenced the American art community in Venice, especially Frank Duveneck and Robert Blum who emulated Whistler's vision of city and later spread his methods and influence back to America. Back in London, the pastels sold particularly well and he quipped, "They are not as good as I supposed. They are selling!" He
was actively engaged in exhibiting his other work but with limited
success. Though still struggling financially, however, he was heartened
by the attention and admiration he received from the young generation
of English and American painters who made him their idol and eagerly
adopted the title of "pupil of Whistler". Many of them returned to
America and spread tales of Whistler's provocative egotism, sharp wit,
and aesthetic pronouncements — establishing the legend of Whistler,
much
to his great satisfaction. Whistler published his first book, Ten O’clock Lecture in
1885, a major expression of his belief in "art for art's sake". At the
time, the opposing Victorian notion reigned, namely, that art, and
indeed much human activity, had a moral or social function. But to
Whistler, art was its own end and the artist's responsibility was not
to society but to himself, to interpret through art, and to neither
reproduce nor moralize what he saw. Furthermore, he stated, "Nature is very rarely right", and must be improved upon by the artist, with his own vision. Though differing with Whistler on several points, including his insistence that poetry was a higher form of art than painting, Wilde was generous in his praise and hailed the lecture a masterpiece: "not
merely for its clever satire and amusing jests… but for the pure and
perfect beauty of many of its passages . . . for that he is indeed one
of the very greatest masters of painting, in my opinion. And I may add
that in this opinion Mr. Whistler himself entirely concurs." Whistler,
however, thought himself mocked by Wilde, and from then on, public
sparring ensued leading to a total breakdown of their friendship. Later, Wilde struck at Whistler again, basing the murdered artist in his novel The Picture of Dorian Gray after Whistler. In January 1881, Anna Whistler died. In his mother's honor, he adopted her maiden name McNeill as his middle name. Whistler
joined the Society of British Artists in 1884, and on June 1, 1886, he
was elected President. The following year, during Queen Victoria's
Golden Jubilee, Whistler presented to the Queen on the Society's behalf
an elaborate album including a lengthy written address and
illustrations that he made himself. Queen Victoria so admired "the
beautiful and artistic illumination" that she decreed henceforth, "that
the Society should be called Royal." This achievement was widely
appreciated by the members, but it was soon overshadowed by the dispute
that inevitably arose with the Royal Academy of Arts. Whistler proposed
that members of the Royal Society should withdraw from the Royal
Academy. This ignited a feud within the membership ranks that
overshadowed all other Society business. In May 1888, nine members
wrote to Whistler to demand his resignation. At the annual meeting on
June 4, he was defeated for reelection by a vote of 18-19, with nine
abstentions. Whistler and twenty-five supporters resigned, while
the anti-Whistler majority (in his view) was successful in purging him
for his "eccentricities" and "un-English" background. With
his relationship with Maud unraveling, Whistler suddenly proposed to
and married Beatrice ("Trixie") Godwin, a former pupil and the former
wife of his architect, who had died two years earlier. Her
respectability and connections helped bring him badly needed
commissions in the early 1890s. His new book, The Gentle Art of Making Enemies, was published in 1890 to mixed success but it afforded helpful publicity. In 1890, he met Charles Lang Freer, who became a valuable patron in America, and ultimately, his most important collector. Around this time, in addition to portraiture, Whistler experimented with early color photography and with lithography, creating a series featuring London architecture and the human figure, mostly female nudes. In 1891, with help from his close friend Stéphane Mallarmé, Whistler's Mother was
purchased by the French government for 4,000 francs. This was much less
than what an American collector might have paid, but that would not
have been as prestigious by Whistler's reckoning. After
an indifferent reception to his one-man show in London, featuring
mostly his nocturnes, Whistler abruptly decided he had had enough of
London. He and Trixie moved to Paris in 1892. He felt welcomed by Monet, Auguste Rodin, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, and by Stéphane Mallarmé,
and he set himself up a large studio. He was at the top of his career
when it was discovered that Trixie had incurable cancer. She died in
1896. In
the final seven years of his life, Whistler did some minimalist
seascapes in watercolor and a final self-portrait in oil. He
corresponded with his many friends and colleagues. Whistler founded an
art school in 1898, but his poor health and infrequent appearances led
to its closure in 1901. He died in London on July 17, 1903. Whistler was the subject of a contemporaneous biography by his friend, the printmakerJoseph Pennell who collaborated with his wife Elizabeth Robins Pennell to write The Life of James McNeill Whistler, published in 1908. The Pennells’ vast collection of Whistler material was bequeathed to the Library of Congress. The
artist's entire estate was left to his sister-in-law Rosalind Birnie
Philip. She spent her life defending his reputation and managing his
art and effects, much of which was eventually donated to Glasgow University. Whistler
had a distinctive appearance, short and slight, with piercing eyes and
a curling moustache, often sporting a monocle and the flashy attire of
a dandy. He
affected a posture of self-confidence and eccentricity. He was often
arrogant and selfish toward friends and patrons. A constant
self-promoter and egoist, he relished shocking friends and enemies.
Though he could be droll and flippant about social and political
matters, he was always serious about art and often invited public
controversy and debate to argue for his strongly held theories. Whistler
had a high-pitched drawling voice and a unique manner of speech, full
of calculated pauses. A friend said, "In a second you discover that he
is not conversing — he is sketching in words, giving impressions in sound
and sense to be interpreted by the hearer." He was well-known for his biting wit, especially in exchanges with his friend and rival Oscar Wilde. Both were figures in the Café society of Paris, and they were often the "talk of the town". They frequently appeared as caricatures in Punch, to their mutual amusement. On one occasion, young Oscar Wilde attended
one of Whistler's dinners, and hearing his host make some brilliant
remark, apparently said, "I wish I'd said that", to which Whistler
riposted, "You will, Oscar, you will!" In fact, Wilde did repeat in
public many witticisms created by Whistler. Their
relationship soured by the mid-1880s, as Whistler turned against Wilde
and the Aesthetic Movement. When Wilde was publicly acknowledged to be
a homosexual in 1895, Whistler openly mocked him. Whistler reveled in preparing and managing his social gatherings. As a guest observed: One
met all the best in Society there — the people with brains, and those who
had enough to appreciate them. Whistler was an inimitable host. He
loved to be the Sun round whom we lesser lights revolved… All came under
his influence, and in consequence no one was bored, no one dull. In
addition to Henri Fantin-Latour, Alphonse Legros, and Courbet, Whistler
was friendly with many French artists. He illustrated the book Les Chauves-Souris with Antonio de La Gandara. He also knew the impressionists, notably Édouard Manet, Monet, and Edgar Degas. As a young artist, he maintained a close friendship with Dante Gabriel Rossetti, a member of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. His close friendship with Monet and poet Stéphane Mallarmé, who translated the ‘’Ten O’clock Lecture’’ into French, helped strengthen respect for Whistler by the French public. Whistler's lover and model for The White Girl, Joanna Hiffernan, also posed for Gustave Courbet. Historians speculate that Courbet's erotic painting of her as L'Origine du monde led to the breakup of the friendship between Whistler and Courbet. During
the 1870s and much of the 1880s, he lived with his model-mistress Maud
Franklin. Her ability to endure his long, repetitive sittings helped
Whistler develop his portrait skills. He
not only made several excellent portraits of her but she was also a
helpful stand-in for other sitters. In 1888, Whistler married Beatrix
Godwin, the widow of the architect E.W. Godwin, who had designed Whistler's White House.
The first five years of their marriage were very happy but her later
life was a time of misery for the couple, due to her illness and
eventual death from cancer. Near the end, she lay comatose much of the
time, completely addicted to morphine given for pain relief. Her death
was a strong blow Whistler never quite overcame. Whistler had several illegitimate children, of which Charles Hanson is the best documented. |