October 30, 2011 <Back to Index>
PAGE SPONSOR |
Francisco Ignacio Madero González (October 30, 1873 – February 22, 1913) was a politician, writer and revolutionary who served as President of Mexico from 1911 to 1913. As a respectable upper-class politician he supplied a center around which opposition to the dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz could coalesce. However, once Díaz was deposed, the Mexican Revolution quickly spun out of Madero's control. He was deposed and executed by the Porfirista military and his aides that he neglected to replace with revolutionary supporters. His assassination was followed by the most violent period of the revolution (1913 – 1917) until the Constitution of 1917 and revolutionary president Venustiano Carranza achieved some degree of stability. Followers of Madero were known as Maderistas. He was born in Parras de la Fuente, Coahuila; the son of Francisco Indalecio Madero Hernández and Mercedes González Treviño. Popular knowledge say his middle initial, I, stood for Indalecio, though according to his birth certificate it stood for Ignacio. His family was one of the wealthiest families in Mexico: his grandfather had founded the Compañía Industrial de Parras, which was initially involved in vineyards, cotton, and textiles, and which moved into mining, cotton mills, ranching, banking, coal, rubber, and foundries in the later part of the nineteenth century. Madero was educated at the Jesuit college in Saltillo, but this early Catholic education had little lasting impact. Instead, his father's subscription to the magazine Revue Spirit awakened in the young Madero an interest in Spiritism, an offshoot of Spiritualism. As a young man, Madero's father sent him to Ecole des Hautes Etudes Commerciales (HEC). During his time in France, Madero made a pilgrimage to the tomb of Allan Kardec, the founder of Spiritism, and became a passionate advocate of Spiritism, soon coming to believe he was a medium. Then he graduated from High school at Culver Academies, achieving high leadership positions. Following business school, Madero traveled to the University of California, Berkeley to study agricultural techniques and to improve his English. During his time there, he was influenced by the Theosophist ideas of Annie Besant, which were prominent at nearby Stanford University. In 1893,
the 20 year old Madero returned to Mexico and assumed management of the
Madero family's hacienda at San Pedro,
Coahuila. He installed new irrigation works, introduced American
cotton, and
built a soap factory and an ice factory. He also embarked on a lifelong
commitment to philanthropy. His peons were
well paid and received regular medical exams, he built schools,
hospitals, and community kitchens, and he paid to support orphans and
award scholarships. He also taught himself homeopathic
medicine and
offered medical treatments to peons. On April
2, 1903, Bernardo Reyes,
governor of Nuevo
León, violently crushed a political demonstration, an
example of the increasingly authoritarian policies of president Porfirio
Díaz. Madero was deeply moved and, upon the suggestion of
the spirit of his deceased brother
Raúl, he decided to act. Madero responded by founding the Benito
Juárez Democratic
Club and ran for municipal office in 1904, though he lost the election
narrowly. In addition to his political activities, Madero continued his
interest in Spiritism, publishing a number of articles under the
pseudonym of Arjuna (a prince from the Bhagavad Gita). In
1905, Madero became increasingly involved in opposition to the
government of Porfirio Díaz. He organized political clubs and
founded a political newspaper (El Demócrata) and a
satirical periodical (El Mosco,
"The Fly"). Madero's preferred candidate was again defeated by Porfirio
Díaz's preferred candidate in the 1905 governmental elections. In a 1908
interview with U.S. journalist James Creelman published in Pearson's
Magazine,
Porfirio Díaz said that Mexico was ready for a democracy and
that the 1910 presidential election would be a free election. Madero
spent the bulk of 1908 writing a book at the directions of the spirits,
which now included the spirit of Benito Juárez himself. This
book, published in late 1908, was titled La sucesión
presidencial en 1910 (The
Presidential Succession of 1910).
The book quickly became a bestseller in Mexico. The book proclaimed
that the concentration of absolute power in the hands of one man -
Porfirio Díaz - for so long had made Mexico sick. Madero pointed
out the irony that in 1871, Porfirio Díaz's political slogan had
been "No Reelection". Madero acknowledged that Porfirio Díaz had
brought peace and a measure of economic growth to Mexico. However,
Madero argued that this was counterbalanced by the dramatic loss of
freedom which included the brutal treatment of the Yaqui people, the repression of
workers in Cananea,
excessive concessions to the United States,
and an unhealthy centralization of politics around the person of the
president. Madero called for a return of the Liberal 1857
Constitution of Mexico. To achieve this, Madero proposed
organizing a Democratic Party under the slogan Sufragio efectivo, no
reelección ("Valid
Suffrage, No Reelection"). Porfirio Díaz could either run in a
free election or retire. Madero's
book was not well received, and many people began to call Madero the Apostle of Democracy.
Madero sold off much of his property - often at a considerable loss -
in order to finance anti-reelection activities throughout Mexico. He
founded the Anti-reelection Center in Mexico City in May 1909, and soon
thereafter lent his backing to the periodical El Antireeleccionista,
which was run by the young lawyer/philosopher José
Vasconcelos.
Madero traveled throughout Mexico giving anti-reelectionist speeches,
and everywhere he went he was greeted by crowds of thousands. The
Porfirian regime reacted by placing pressure on the Madero family's
banking interests, and at one point even issued a warrant for Madero's
arrest on the grounds of "unlawful transaction in rubber". Madero was
not arrested, though, and in April 1910, the Antireelectionist Party
met and selected Madero as their nominee for President of
Mexico.
Madero, worried that Porfirio Díaz would not willingly
relinquish office, warned his supporters of the possibility of
electoral fraud and proclaimed that "Force shall be met by force!" Madero
set out campaigning across the country and everywhere he was met by
tens of thousands of cheering supporters. Finally, in June 1910, the
Porfirian regime had him arrested in Monterrey and sent to a prison in San Luis
Potosí. Approximately 5,000 other members of the
Anti-Reelectionist movement were also jailed. Francisco
Vázquez Gómez took
over the nomination, but during Madero's time in jail, Díaz was
"elected" as president with an electoral vote of 196 to 187. Madero's
father used his influence with the state governor and posted a bond to
gain Madero the right to move about the city on horseback during the
day. On October 4, 1910, Madero galloped away from his guards and took
refuge with sympathizers in a nearby village. He was then smuggled
across the U.S. border,
hidden in a baggage car by sympathetic railway workers. Madero
set up shop in San Antonio,
Texas, and quickly issued his Plan of San
Luis Potosí, which had been written during his time
in prison, partly with the help of Ramón
López Velarde.
The Plan proclaimed the elections of 1910 null and void, and called for
an armed revolution to begin at 6 p.m. on November 20, 1910, against
the illegitimate presidency/dictatorship of Díaz. At that point,
Madero would declare himself provisional President of Mexico, and
called for a general refusal to acknowledge the central government,
restitution of land to villages and Indian communities, and freedom for
political prisoners. On
November 20, 1910, Madero arrived at the border and planned to meet up
with 400 men raised by his uncle Catarino to launch an attack on Ciudad Porfirio
Díaz (modern
day Piedras Negras,
Coahuila).
However, his uncle showed up late and brought only ten men. As such,
Madero decided to postpone the revolution. Instead he and his brother
Raúl (who had been given the same name as his late brother)
traveled incognito to New Orleans,
Louisiana. In
February 1911 he entered Mexico and led 130 men in an attack on Casas Grandes,
Chihuahua.
He spent the next several months as the head of the Mexican Revolution.
Madero successfully imported arms from the United States, with the
American government under William Howard
Taft doing
little to halt the flow of arms to the Mexican revolutionaries. By
April, the Revolution had spread to eighteen states,
including Morelos where the leader was Emiliano Zapata.
On
April 1, 1911, Porfirio Díaz claimed that he had heard the voice
of the people of Mexico, replaced his cabinet, and agreed to
restitution of the lands of the dispossessed. Madero did not believe
Díaz and instead demanded the resignation of President
Díaz and Vice President Ramón
Corral.
Madero then attended a meeting with the other revolutionary
leaders – they agreed to a fourteen-point plan which called for
pay for revolutionary soldiers; the release of political prisoners; and
the right of the revolutionaries to name several members of cabinet.
Madero was moderate, however. He believed that the revolutionaries
should proceed cautiously so as to minimize bloodshed and should strike
a deal with Díaz if possible. In May, Madero wanted a ceasefire,
but his fellow revolutionaries Pascual Orozco and Francisco Villa disagreed and went ahead
with an attack on Ciudad
Juárez. The revolutionaries won this battle decisively
and on May 21, 1911, the Treaty of
Ciudad Juárez was
signed. Under
the terms of the Treaty of Ciudad Juárez, Díaz and Corral
agreed to resign by the end of May 1911, with Díaz's Minister of
Foreign Affairs, Francisco
León de la Barra, taking over as interim president solely
for the purpose of calling general elections.
This
first phase of the Mexican Revolution thus ended with Díaz
leaving for exile in Europe at the end of May 1911. On June 7, 1911,
Madero entered Mexico City in triumph where he was
greeted with huge crowds shouting "¡Viva Madero!"
Although Madero had forced Porfirio Díaz from power, he did not
assume
the presidency in June 1911. Instead, he pursued a moderate policy,
leaving Francisco León de la Barra, one of Díaz's
supporters, as president. He also left in place the Congress of
Mexico, which was full of candidates whom Díaz had
handpicked for the 1910 election. Madero
now called for the disbanding of all revolutionary forces, arguing that
the revolutionaries should henceforth proceed solely by peaceful means.
In the south, revolutionary leader Emiliano Zapata was skeptical about disbanding
his troops, but Madero traveled south to meet with Zapata at Cuernavaca and Cuautla, Morelos.
Madero assured Zapata that the land redistribution promised in the Plan
of San Luis Potosí would be carried out when Madero became
president.
However,
in Madero's absence, several landowners from Zapata's state of Morelos had
appealed to President de la Barra and the Congress to restore their
lands which had been seized by revolutionaries. They spread exaggerated
stories of atrocities committed by Zapata's troops, calling Zapata the "Attila of the South." De la Barra
and the Congress therefore decided to send troops under Victoriano
Huerta to
suppress Zapata's troops. Madero once again traveled south to urge
Zapata to disband his troops peacefully, but Zapata refused on the
grounds that Huerta's troops were advancing on Yautepec de
Zaragoza.
Zapata's suspicions proved accurate as Huerta's troops moved violently
into Yautepec de Zaragoza. Madero wrote to De la Barra, saying that
Huerta's actions were unjustified and recommending that Zapata's
demands be met. However, when he left the south, he had achieved
nothing. However, he promised the Zapatistas that once he became
president, things would change. Most Zapatistas had grown suspicious of
Madero, however. Before
becoming president, Madero published another book, this one under the
pseudonym of Bhima (one of Arjuna's brothers
in the Mahābhārata)
called a Spiritualist
Manual. Madero
became president in November 1911, and, intending to reconcile the
nation, appointed a cabinet which included many of Porfirio
Díaz's supporters. However, Madero was unable to seek the
reconciliation he desired since conservative Porfirians had managed to
get themselves organized during the interim presidency of Francisco
León de la Barra and now mounted a sustained and effective
opposition to Madero's reform program. Conservative Porfirians in the
Senate refused to pass the reforms he advocated. At the same time,
several of Madero's allies denounced him for being overly
reconciliatory with the Porfirians and with not moving aggressively
forward with reforms: thus, on November 25, 1911, Emiliano Zapata issued his Plan of Ayala,
denouncing Madero for being uninterested in pursuing land reform. After
years of censorship,
Mexican newspapers took the opportunity of their newfound freedom of the
press to roundly criticize Madero's performance as president. Gustavo A.
Madero,
the president's brother, remarked "the newspapers bite the hand that
took off their muzzle." Francisco Madero refused the recommendation of
some of his advisors that he bring back censorship, however. The
press was particularly critical of Madero's handling of three
rebellions that broke out against his rule shortly after he became
president: (1) In
December 1911, Bernardo Reyes (the
popular general whom Porfirio Díaz had sent to Europe on a
diplomatic mission because Díaz worried that Reyes was going to
challenge him for the presidency) launched a rebellion in Nuevo
León, where he had previously served as governor. Reyes'
rebellion lasted only eleven days before Reyes surrendered at Linares, Nuevo
León and
was sent to a prison in Mexico City. (2)
In March 1912, Madero's former general Pascual Orozco,
who was personally resentful of how Madero had treated him, launched a
rebellion in Chihuahua with the financial backing
of Luis Terrazas,
a former Governor
of Chihuahua who
was the largest landowner in Mexico. Madero despatched troops under
General José González Salas to put down the rebellion,
but they were initially defeated by Orozco's troops. General
José González Salas committed suicide and Victoriano
Huerta assumed
control of the federalist forces. Huerta was more successful, defeating
Orozco's troops in three major battles and forcing Orozco to flee to
the United States in September 1912. Relations
between Huerta and Madero grew strained during the course of this
campaign when Pancho Villa,
the commander of the División
del Norte,
refused orders from General Huerta. Huerta ordered Villa's execution,
but Madero commuted the sentence and Villa was set free. Angry at
Madero's commutation of Villa's sentence, Huerta, after a long night of
drinking, mused about reaching an agreement with Orozco and together
deposing Madero as president. When Mexico's Minister of War learned of
General Huerta's comments, he stripped Huerta of his command, but
Madero intervened and restored Huerta to command. (3) In
October 1912, Félix
Díaz (nephew
of Porfirio Díaz) launched a rebellion in Veracruz,
"to reclaim the honor of the army trampled by Madero." This rebellion
was quickly crushed and Félix Díaz was imprisoned. Madero
was prepared to have Félix Díaz executed, but the Supreme Court
of Mexico declared
that Félix Díaz would be imprisoned, but not executed. Besides
managing rebellions, Madero did have a number of accomplishments during
his presidency: Madero's
leadership of the Revolution, presidency and assassination are depicted
in at least two Hollywood movies, Viva Villa!,
[1934] directed by Jack Conway, screenplay by Ben Hecht, and Viva Zapata!,
(1952) directed by Elia Kazan, screenplay by John Steinbeck. Francisco
and his brother, Gustavo A. Madero, are mentioned in the 1992 book All the Pretty
Horses by
Cormac McCarthy. Alejandra's aunt is said to have been associated with
the two men when they were young, and even had an ill fated romantic
relationship with Gustavo. The brothers betrayal and execution are also
mentioned in the book. The character Abraham Reyes in the video game Red Dead
Redemption is
based on Madero. |