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Zhou Enlai (5 March 1898 – 8 January 1976) was the first Premier of the People's Republic of China, serving from October 1949 until his death in January 1976. Zhou was instrumental in the Communist Party's rise to power, and subsequently in the development of the Chinese economy and restructuring of Chinese society. A skilled and able diplomat, Zhou served as the Chinese foreign minister from 1949 to 1958. Advocating peaceful coexistence with the West, he participated in the 1954 Geneva Conference and helped orchestrate Richard Nixon's 1972 visit to China. Due to his expertise, Zhou was largely able to survive the purges of high level Chinese Communist Party officials during the Cultural Revolution. His attempts at mitigating the Red Guards' damage and his efforts to protect others from their wrath made him immensely popular in the Revolution's later stages. As Mao Zedong's health began to decline in 1971 and 1972, Zhou and the Gang of Four struggled
internally over leadership of China. Zhou's health was also failing
however, and he died eight months before Mao on 8 January 1976. The
massive public outpouring of grief in Beijing turned to anger towards
the Gang of Four, leading to the Tiananmen Incident. Although succeeded by Hua Guofeng, it was Deng Xiaoping, Zhou's ally, who was able to outmaneuver the Gang of Four politically and eventually take Mao's place as Paramount Leader by 1977. Zhou Enlai was born in Huai'an, Jiangsu province, on 5 March 1898, the first son of his branch of the Zhou family. The Zhou family were originally from Shaoxing in Zhejiang province.
During the late Qing dynasty, Shaoxing was famous as the home of
families such as Zhou's, whose members worked as government "clerks"
(shiye) generation after generation. To
move up the ladder in civil service, the men in these families often
had to get transferred, and in the late years of the Qing dynasty, Zhou
Enlai's branch of the family moved to Huai'an. Even after the move,
however, the family continued to view Shaoxing as its ancestral home.
Zhou's
grandfather, Zhou Panlong, and his granduncle, Zhou Jun'ang, were the
first members of the family to move to Huai'an. Panlong apparently
passed the provincial examinations, and Zhou Enlai later claimed that
Panlong served as magistrate governing Huai'an county. Zhou's
father, Zhou Yineng, was the second of Zhou Panlong's four sons. Zhou's
birth mother, surnamed Wan, was the daughter of a prominent Jiangsu
official. Soon
after birth, Zhou Enlai was adopted by his father's youngest brother,
Zhou Yigan, who was ill with tuberculosis. Apparently the adoption was
arranged because the family feared Yigan would die without an heir. Zhou
Yigan died soon after the adoption, and Zhou Enlai was raised by
Yigan's widow, whose surname was Chen. Madame Chen was also from a
scholarly family and received a traditional literary education.
According to Zhou's own account, he was very close to his adoptive
mother and acquired his lasting interest in Chinese literature and
opera from her. Madame Chen taught Zhou to read and write at an early
age, and Zhou later claimed to have read the famous vernacular novel Xiyouji at the age of six. Zhou's
birth mother Wan died in 1907 when Zhou was 9, and his adoptive mother
Chen in 1908 when Zhou was 10. Zhou's father was working in Hubei, far
from Jiangsu, so Zhou and his two younger brothers returned to Huai'an
and lived with his father's remaining younger brother Yikui for the
next two years. In
1910, Zhou's uncle Yigeng, his father's older brother, offered to care
for Zhou. The family in Huai'an agreed, and Zhou was sent to stay with his uncle in Manchuria at Shenyang, where Zhou Yigeng worked in a government office. In
Shenyang, Zhou attended the Dongguan Model Academy, a Western style
school. His previous education consisted entirely of home schooling. In
addition to new subjects such as English and science, Zhou was also
exposed to the writings of reformers and radicals such as Liang Qichao and Zhang Binglin. In 1913, Zhou's uncle was transferred to Tianjin, where Zhou entered the famous Nankai Middle School. Nankai Midddle School was founded by Yan Xiu, a prominent scholar and philanthropist, and headed by Zhang Boling, one of the most important Chinese educators of the twentieth century. Nankai's
teaching methods were unusual in many respects. By the time Zhou began
attending, it had adopted the educational model used at Phillips academy in the United States. The school's reputation, with its "highly disciplined" daily routine and "strict moral code" attracted
many students who later became prominent in public life, and Zhou's
friends and classmates there ranged from Ma Jun (an early communist
leader executed in 1927) to K.C. Wu (later mayor of Shanghai and governor of Taiwan under the Nationalist party). Zhou's
talents also attracted the attention of Yan Xiu and Zhang Boling. Yan
in particular thought highly of Zhou, helping to pay for his studies in
Japan and later France. Zhou
did well in his studies at Nankai; he excelled in Chinese, won several
awards in the school speech club, and became editor of the school
newspaper in his final year. Zhou was also very active in acting and
producing dramas and plays at Nankai; many students who were not
otherwise acquainted with him knew of him through his acting. Nankai
preserves a number of essays and articles written by Zhou at this time,
and these reflect the discipline, training, and concern for country
that Nankai's founders attempted to instill in their students. At the
school's tenth commencement in June 1917, Zhou was one of five
graduating students honored at the ceremony, and one of the two
valedictorians. Following
many of his classmates, Zhou went to Japan in July 1917 for further
studies. During his two years in Japan, Zhou spent most of his time in
the East Asian Higher Preparatory School, a language school for Chinese
students. Zhou's studies were supported by his uncles, and apparently
Nankai founder Yan Xiu as well, but their funds were limited and during
this period Japan suffered from severe inflation. Zhou
originally planned on winning one of the scholarships offered by the
Chinese government; these scholarships, however, required Chinese
students to pass entrance examinations in Japanese universities. Zhou
took entrance examinations for at least two schools, but failed to gain
admission, and
financial problems may have been one reason Zhou returned to China in
the spring of 1919. Some
of Zhou's diaries and letters from Japan still exist; together with
memoirs of his acquaintances, these give a sketch of Zhou's political
development at this point. It seems that he devoted most of his time to
learning Japanese and reading; his personal relations were mostly
limited to classmates from Nankai who had come to Japan; at one point
he was deputy secretary of the Nankai alumni association in Japan. However,
his diaries and letters show that Zhou was also deeply interested in
politics and current events. In particular, he was fascinated by the
Russian Revolution of 1917 and the Bolsheviks' new policies. He
probably read some early Japanese works on Marx, and it has been
claimed that he even attended Kawakami Hajime's
lectures at Kyoto University. Kawakami was an important figure in the
early history of Japanese Marxism, and his translations and articles
influenced a generation of Chinese communists. However, it now seems very unlikely that Zhou met him or heard any of his lectures. Zhou's
diaries also show his concern over Chinese student strikes in Japan in
May 1918, when the Chinese government failed to send the students'
scholarships, but he apparently was not deeply involved in the protest.
His active role in political movements began after his return to China. Zhou
returned to Tianjin sometime in the spring of 1919. The exact date is
uncertain, but there is no record of his participation in the early
activities of the famous May Fourth Movement (May to June 1919), even though his classmates and teachers from Nankai were all involved. In
July 1919, however, Zhou became editor of the Tianjin Student Union
Bulletin, apparently at the request of his Nankai classmate, Ma Jun, a
founder of the Union. During
its brief existence from July 1919 to early 1920, the Bulletin was
widely read by student groups around the country and suppressed on at
least one occasion by the national government as "harmful to public safety and social order." When
Nankai became a university in August 1919, Zhou was in the first class,
but he was an activist full time. His political activities continued to
expand and in September he and several other students agreed to
establish the "Awakening Society", a small group never numbering more
than 25. In some ways it resembled the clandestine Marxist study group at Peking University headed by Li Dazhao,
with the group members using numbers instead of names for "secrecy."
(Zhou was "Number Five," a pseudonym which he continued to use in later
years.) Indeed, immediately after the group was established, it invited Li Dazhao to give a lecture on Marxism. Zhou assumed more prominent active role in political activities over the next few months. The
largest of these activities were rallies in support of a nation wide
boycott of Japanese goods. As the boycott became more effective, the
national government, under pressure from Japan, attempted to suppress
it. On 23 January 1920, a confrontation over boycott activities in
Tianjin led to the arrest of a number of people, including several
Awakening Society members, and on 29 January Zhou led a march on the
Governor's Office in Tianjin to present a petition calling for the
arrestees' release. Zhou and three other leaders were themselves
arrested. The arrestees were held for over six months; during their
detention, Zhou supposedly organized discussions on Marxism. At their trial in July, Zhou and six others were sentenced to two months;
the rest were found not guilty. All were immediately released since
they had already been held over six months. After
Zhou's release, he and the Awakening Society met with several Beijing
organizations and agreed to form a "Reform Federation"; during these
activities Zhou became more familiar with Li Dazhao and met Zhang
Shenfu, who was the contact between Li in Beijing and Chen Duxiu in Shanghai. Both men were organizing underground Communist cells in cooperation with Grigori Voitinsky, a Comintern agent, but Zhou apparently did not meet Voitinsky at this point. Soon
after his release, Zhou decided to go to Europe for study. (He was
expelled from Nankai University during his detention.) Although money
was a problem, he received a scholarship from Yan Xiu. He also approached a Tianjin newspaper, Yishi bao,
for work as "special correspondent" in Europe. Zhou left Shanghai for
Europe on 7 November 1920 with a group of 196 work study students, including friends from Nankai and Tianjin. Zhou's
experiences after the May Fourth incident seem to have been crucial in
his radicalization. Zhou's friends in the Awakening Society were
similarly affected. 15 of the group's members became Communists for at
least some time, and the group remained close later on. Zhou and six
other group members wound up going to Europe in the next two years, and
Zhou eventually married the group's youngest member, Deng Yingchao. Zhou's
group arrived in Marseilles 13 December. Still interested in academic
programs, Zhou traveled to Britain in January 1921 to visit Edinburgh
University. Concerned by financial problems and language requirements,
he did not enroll, returning to France at the end of January. There are
no records of Zhou entering any academic program in France. In spring
1921, he joined a Chinese Communist cell. Zhou
was recruited by Zhang Shenfu, whom he had met in August of the
previous year in connection with Li Dazhao. He also knew Zhang through
Zhang's wife, Liu Qingyang, a member of the Awakening Society. Zhou has
sometimes been portrayed at this time as uncertain in his politics, but his swift move to Communism suggests otherwise. The
cell Zhou belonged to was based in Paris; in addition to Zhou, Zhang,
and Liu it included two other students, Zhao Shiyan and Chen Gongpei.
Over the next several months, this group eventually formed a united
organization with a group of Chinese radicals from Hunan, who were
living in Montargis south of Paris. This group included such later
prominent figures as Cai Hesen, Li Lisan, Chen Yi, Nie Rongzhen, Deng Xiaoping,
and also Guo Longzhen, another member of the Awakening Society. Unlike
Zhou, most of the students in this group were participants in the
work study program. A series of conflicts with the Chinese
administrators of the program resulted in over a hundred students
occupying the program's offices at the Sino - French Institute in Lyon
in
September 1921. The students, including several people from the
Montargis group, were arrested and deported. Zhou was apparently not
one of the occupying students and remained in France until February or
March 1922, when he moved with Zhang and Liu from Paris to Berlin.
Zhou's move to Berlin was perhaps because the relatively "lenient"
political atmosphere in Berlin made it more favorable as a base for
overall European organizing. In addition, the Western European Secretariat of the Comintern was located in Berlin and it is clear that Zhou had important Comintern connections, though the nature of these is disputed. From this point on, Zhou regularly shuttled between Paris and Berlin. Zhou returned to Paris by June 1922, where he was one of the twenty two participants present at the organization of the Chinese Youth Communist Party, established as the European Branch of the Chinese Communist Party. Zhou
helped draft the party's charter and was elected to the three member
executive committee as director of propaganda. He also wrote for and
helped edit the party magazine, Shaonian (Youth), later renamed Chiguang (Red
Light). The party went through several reorganizations and name
changes, but Zhou remained a key member of the group throughout his
stay in Europe. Other important activities Zhou undertook included recruiting and transporting students for the University of the Toilers of the East in Moscow, and the establishment of the Chinese Nationalist Party European branch. In
June 1923, the Third Congress of the Chinese Communist Party accepted
the Comintern's instructions to ally with the Chinese Nationalist party, led at the time by Sun Yat-sen.
These instructions called for individual CCP members to join the
Nationalist Party. Zhou not only joined, but actually helped organize
the founding of the Nationalist Party European branch in November 1923.
Under Zhou's influence, most of the European branch's officers were in
fact Communists. Zhou's wide ranging contacts and personal relationships formed during this period were central to his career.
Important party leaders, such as Zhu De and Nie Rongzhen, were first admitted to the party by Zhou. By
1924, the Soviet - Nationalist alliance was expanding rapidly and Zhou
was summoned back to China for further work. He left Europe probably in
late July 1924, returning to China as one of the most senior Chinese Communist party members in Europe. Zhou returned to China in late August or early September 1924 to join the Political Department of the Whampoa Military Academy, probably through the influence of Zhang Shenfu, who had previously worked there. The
exact positions Zhou held at Whampoa and the dates he held them are not
clear. A few months after his arrival, possibly October 1924, he became
deputy director of the Academy's Political Department, and later,
possibly November 1924, director of the department. Whampoa
was at the heart of the Soviet - Nationalist Party alliance. Conceived as
the training center of the Nationalist Party Army, it was to provide
the military base from which the Nationalists would launch their
campaign to unify China, which was split into dozens of military
satrapies. From its beginning, the school was funded, armed, and partly
staffed by the Soviets. The
Political Department, where Zhou worked, was responsible for political
indoctrination and control. As a result, Zhou was a prominent figure at
most Academy meetings, often addressing the school immediately after
commandant Chiang Kai-shek. He did important work establishing the
political department/ party representative (commissar) system which was
adopted in Nationalist armed forces in 1925. Concurrent
with his Whampoa appointment, Zhou became secretary of the Communist
Party's Guangdong Provincial Committee, and at some point a member of
the Provincial Committee's Military Section. Zhou
vigorously extended Communist influence at the Academy. He soon
arranged for a number of other prominent Communists to join the
Political Department, including Chen Yi, Nie Rongzhen, Yun Daiying, and Xiong Xiong. Zhou
played an important role in establishing the Young Soldiers
Association, a youth group which was dominated by the Communists, and
Sparks, a short lived Communist front group. He thus recruited numerous
new Communist party members from cadet ranks, and eventually set up a
covert Communist Party branch at the academy to direct the new members. When
Nationalists concerned with the increasing number of Communist members
and organizations at Whampoa set up a "Society for Sun Yatsenism," Zhou
attempted to squelch it; the conflict between these student groups set
the background for Zhou's removal from the academy. Zhou
participated in two military operations conducted by the Nationalist
regime in 1925, later known as the first and second Eastern Expeditions. The first was in January 1925 when Chen Jiongming,
an important Cantonese military leader previously driven out of
Guangzhou by Sun Yat-sen, attempted to retake Guangzhou. The
Nationalist regime's campaign against Chen consisted of forces from the
Guangdong Army under Xu Chongzhi, and two training regiments of the Nationalist Party Army, led by Chiang Kai-shek and staffed by Academy officers and cadets. The fighting lasted through May 1925, with the defeat, but not destruction, of Chen's forces. Zhou accompanied the Whampoa cadets on the expedition as a political officer. When
Chen regrouped and attacked Guangzhou again in September 1925, the
Nationalists launched a second expedition. Nationalist forces by this
time had been reorganized into five corps (or armies), and adopted the
commissar system with Political Departments and Nationalist party
representatives in most divisions. The First Corps, made up of the
Nationalist Party Army, was led by Whampoa graduates and commanded by
Chiang Kai-shek, who personally appointed Zhou director of the First
Corps Political Department. Soon
after, the Nationalist Party's Central Executive Committee appointed
Zhou Nationalist Party party representative, making Zhou chief
commissar of the First Corps. The
first major battle of expedition saw the capture of Chen's base in
Huizhou on 15 October. Shantou was taken on 6 November, and by the end
of 1925, the Nationalists controlled all of Guangdong province. Zhou's
appointment as chief commissar of the First Corps allowed him to
appoint Communists as commissars in four of the Corps' five divisions. Following
the conclusion of the Expedition, Zhou was appointed special
commissioner for the East River District, which placed him in temporary
administrative control of several counties; he apparently used this
opportunity to establish a Communist party branch in Shantou and
strengthen the CCP's control of local unions. This marked the high point of Zhou's time at Whampoa. In
personal terms, 1925 was also an important year for Zhou. Zhou had kept
in touch with Deng Yingchao from the Awakening Society while in France,
and in January 1925 Zhou asked for and received permission from CCP
authorities to marry Deng. The two married in Guangzhou on 8 August
1925. Zhou's work at Whampoa came to an end with the Zhongshan Warship Incident of
20 March 1926. This complex event led to the exclusion of Communists
from the Academy by May 1926 and the removal of numerous Communists
from high positions in the Nationalist Party. What part Zhou's
activities played in the incident, if any, remains obscure. Whampoa
was a significant period in Zhou's career. His pioneering work as a
political officer in the military made him an important Communist Party
expert in this key area; much of his later career centered in the
military. Zhou's work in the CCP Guangdong Regional Committee Military
Section was typical. The
Section was a secret group consisting of three members of the
Provincial Central Committee. The Section was first responsible for
organizing and directing CCP nuclei in the army itself. These nuclei,
organized at the regimental level and above, were "illegal," meaning
they were formed without Nationalist knowledge or authorization. In
addition, the Section was also responsible for organizing similar
nuclei in other armed groups, such as secret societies, and in key
services such as railroads and waterways. Zhou did extensive work in
all of these areas until the final separation of the Nationalist and
Communist parties and the end of the Soviet - Nationalist alliance in
1927. Zhou's
activities immediately after his removal from his positions at Whampoa
are uncertain. An earlier biographer claims that Chiang Kai-shek put
Zhou in charge of "an advanced training center for the CCP members and
commissars withdrawn from the army." More recent Chinese Communist sources claim that Zhou had an important role at this time in securing Communist control of Ye Ting's
Independent Regiment. The regiment and Ye Ting later played a leading
role in the Communist's first major military action, the Nanchang Revolt. In July 1926, the Nationalists began the Northern Expedition, a massive military attempt to unify China. The Expedition was led by Chiang Kai-shek and the National Revolutionary Army (NRA),
an amalgam of earlier military forces with significant guidance from
Russian military advisors and numerous Communists as both commanding
and political officers. With the early successes of the Expedition,
there was soon a race between Chiang Kai-shek leading the "right wing"
of the Nationalist Party and the Communists, running inside the
"left wing" of the Nationalists, for control of major southern cities
such as Nanjing and Shanghai. At this point the Chinese portion of
Shanghai was controlled by Sun Chuanfang,
one of the militarists targeted by the North Expedition. Distracted by
fighting with the NRA and defections from his army, Sun reduced his
forces in Shanghai, and the Communists, whose party headquarters was
located in Shanghai, made three attempts to seize control of the city,
later called the three Shanghai Uprisings, in October 1926, February
1927, and March 1927. Zhou
was transferred to Shanghai to assist in these activities, probably in
late 1926. It seems he was not present for the first uprising on 23–24
Oct, but
he was certainly in Shanghai by December 1926. Early accounts credit
Zhou with labor organizing activities in Shanghai after his arrival,
or, more credibly, working to "strengthen the indoctrination of
political workers in labor unions and smuggle arms for the strikers." Reports
that Zhou "organized" or "ordered" the second and third uprisings on 20
February and 21 March exaggerate his role. Major decisions during this
period were made by the Communist head in Shanghai, Chen Duxiu, the
Party's general secretary, with a special committee of eight party
officials coordinating Communist actions. The committee also consulted
closely on decisions with the Comintern representatives in Shanghai,
headed by Voitinsky. The
partial documentation available for this period shows that Zhou headed
the Communist Party Central Committee's Military Commission in Shanghai. He
participated in both the February and March actions, but was not the
guiding hand in either event, instead working with A.P. Appen, the
Soviet military advisor to the Central Committee, training the pickets
of the General Labor Union, the Communist controlled labor organization
in Shanghai. He also worked to make union strong arm squads more
effective when the Communists declared a "Red Terror" after the failed
February uprising; this action resulted in the murder of twenty
"anti union" figures, and kidnappings, beatings, and intimidation of
more. The
third Communist uprising in Shanghai took place on 20–21 March. Zhou
personally took part in the uprising, leading labor union pickets to
seize the Chinese city's post office and police headquarters. The
forces of Sun Chuanfang having withdrawn, the uprising was successful,
despite the small number of armed forces available to the Communists
and the opposition of the Nationalist Party organization in Shanghai.
As the Communists attempted to install a soviet municipal government,
conflict began between the Nationalists and Communists, and on 12 April
Nationalist forces, including both members of the Green Gang and soldiers of the NRA under the command of Nationalist general Bai Chongxi,
attacked the Communists and quickly overcame them. Zhou was captured by
Bai Chongxi's forces, but either escaped or was released. Fleeing Shanghai, Zhou made his way to Hankou,
and was a participant at the CCP's 5th National Congress there from 27
April to 9 May. At the end of the Congress, Zhou was elected to the
Party's Central Committee, again heading the military department. After Chiang Kai-shek's suppression of the Communists, the Nationalist Party
split in two, with the Nationalist Party "left wing" controlling the
government in Hankou, and Chiang and the party "right wing"
establishing a rival government in Nanjing. Still following Comintern
instructions, the Communists remained as a "bloc inside" the
Nationalist Party, hoping to continue expanding their influence through
the Nationalists, but further conflicts led the Nationalist "left wing"
to begin its own purge of the Communists in mid July and Zhou had to go
underground. Pressured
by their Comintern advisors, and themselves convinced that the
"revolutionary high tide" had arrived, the Communists decided to launch
a series of military revolts. The first of these was the Nanchang Revolt. Zhou was sent to oversee the event, but the moving figures seem to have been Tan Pingshan and Li Lisan, while the main military figures were Ye Ting and He Long. In military terms, the revolt was a disaster, with the Communists' forces decimated and scattered. After
the failure of the Nanchang Uprising, Zhou left China for the Soviet
Union to attend the Chinese Communist Party's 6th National Party
Congress in Moscow, in June – July 1928. He was elected Director of the Central Committee Organization Department; his ally, Li Lisan took over propaganda work. Zhou finally returned to China, after more than a year away, in 1929. In Shanghai, Zhou began to disagree with the timing of Li Lisan's strategy
of favoring rich peasants and concentrating military forces for attacks
on urban centers sometime in early 1930. Zhou did not openly break with
these more orthodox notions, and even tried to implement them later, in
1931, in Jiangxi. Zhou moved to the Jiangxi base
area and shook up the propaganda - oriented approach to revolution by
demanding that the armed forces under communist control actually be
used to expand the base, rather than just to control and defend it. In
December 1931, he replaced Mao as Secretary of the 1st Front Army with
Xiang Ying, and made himself political commissar of the Red Army, in
place of Mao. Liu Bocheng, Lin Biao and Peng Dehuai all criticized
Mao's tactics at the August 1932 Ningdu Conference. Under Zhou, the Red Army defeated four attacks by Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalist troops. Only
when the Nationalists were forced to change their tactics did Zhou
endorse withdrawal. Zhou Enlai was thus one of the major beneficiaries
of the 1931–34 side-lining of Mao Zedong, Deng Xiaoping, Tan Zhenlin, Deng Zihui, Lu Dingyi and Xiao Jinguang. In early 1933, Bo Gu arrived with German Comintern adviser Otto Braun (Li De) and
took control of party affairs. Zhou at this time, apparently with
strong support from party and military colleagues, undertook to
reorganize and standardize the Red Army. The results were the structure
that led the communists to victory: In the Yan'an years, Zhou was active in promoting a united anti - Japanese front. As a result, he played a major role in the Xi'an Incident, helped to secure Chiang Kai-shek's release, and negotiated the Second CCP - KMT United Front, and coining the famous phrase "Chinese should not fight Chinese but a common enemy: the invader". Zhou spent the Sino - Japanese War as CCP ambassador to Chiang's wartime government in Chongqing and took part in the failed negotiations following World War II. In
1949, with the establishment of the People's Republic of China, Zhou
was appointed both premier of the Government Administration Council
(later replaced by the State Council) and Minister of Foreign Affairs.
Experienced in diplomacy, Zhou took an active role in China's foreign
relations. In June 1953, he announced China's five principles for
peaceful coexistence, and later headed the Communist Chinese
delegations to the Geneva Conference in 1954 and to the Bandung Conference in 1955. On
his way to the Bandung conference, an assassination attempt was made
against Zhou when a bomb was planted on the Air India plane Kashmir Princess chartered for Zhou's trip to the conference. Zhou
avoided the attempt when he changed planes at the last minute, but all
11 of the flight's other passengers were killed. A recent study has
blamed the attempt on "one of the intelligence agencies of the KMT
(Kuomintang)." Journalist Joseph Trento has
also alleged that there was a second attempt on Zhou's life at the
Bandung conference involving "a bowl of rice poisoned with a
slow acting toxin." Zhou's
diplomacy strengthened regional ties with India, Burma, and Southeast
Asian countries such as Indonesia, but in 1958 the post of Minister of
Foreign Affairs was passed to Chen Yi, a general with little prior diplomatic experience. As
Premier, one of Zhou's major concerns was China's economy, which was in
a poor state in 1949, after decades of war. He aimed at increased
agricultural production through the even redistribution of land.
Industrial progress was also on his to-do list. He additionally
initiated the first environmental reforms in China. In government, Mao
largely developed policy while Zhou carried it out. In 1958, Mao Zedong began the Great Leap Forward,
aimed at increasing China's production levels in industry and
agriculture with unrealistic targets. As a popular and practical
administrator, Zhou maintained his position through the Leap. Zhou has
been described by at least one historian as the "midwife" of the Great
Leap Forward, turning Mao's theory into reality and in the process causing a "minimum of 45 million" deaths. The Cultural Revolution (1966 – 1976) was a great blow to Zhou. At its late stages in 1975, he pushed for the "four modernizations" to undo the damage caused by the campaigns. Known
as an able diplomat, Zhou was largely responsible for the
re-establishment of contacts with the West in the early 1970s. He
welcomed US President Richard Nixon to China in February 1972, and signed the Shanghai Communiqué. After
discovering he had cancer, he began to pass many of his
responsibilities onto Deng Xiaoping. During the late stages of the
Cultural Revolution, Zhou was the new target of Chairman Mao's and Gang
of Four's political campaigns in 1975 by initiating "criticizing Song Jiang, evaluating the Water Margin", alluding to a Chinese literary work, using Zhou as an example of a political loser. In addition, the Criticize Lin, Criticize Confucius campaign was also directed at Premier Zhou because he was viewed as one of the Gang's primary political opponents. Zhou was hospitalized in 1974 for bladder cancer,
but continued to conduct work from the hospital, with Deng Xiaoping as
the First Deputy Premier handling most of the important State Council
matters. Zhou died on the morning of 8 January 1976, aged 77. He died eight months before Mao Zedong. Zhou's death brought messages of condolences from many non-aligned states that
he affected during his tenure as an effective diplomat and negotiator
on the world stage, and many states saw his death as a terrible loss.
Zhou's body was cremated and the ashes scattered by air over hills and
valleys, according to his wishes. Inside China, the infamous Gang of Four had
seen Zhou's death as an effective step forward in their political
maneuvering, as the last major challenge was now gone in their plot to
seize absolute power. At Zhou's funeral, Deng Xiaoping delivered the
official eulogy, but later he was forced out of politics by the Gang of
Four, who were themselves arrested by Mao's successor Hua Guofeng. Because
Zhou was very popular with the people, many rose in spontaneous
expressions of mourning across China, which the Gang considered to be
dangerous, as they feared people might use this opportunity to express
hatred towards them. During the Tiananmen Incident in
April 1976, the Gang of Four tried to suppress mourning for the
"Beloved Premier", which resulted in rioting. Anti - Gang of Four poetry
was found on some wreaths that were laid, and all wreaths were
subsequently taken down at the Monument to the People's Heroes.
These actions, however, only further enraged the people. Thousands of
armed soldiers repressed the people’s protest in Tiananmen Square, and
hundreds of people were arrested. The Gang of Four blamed Deng Xiaoping
for the movement and temporarily removed him from all his official
positions. Zhou remains a widely commemorated figure in China today. The city of Tianjin has established a
museum to Zhou and his wife, and the city of Nanjing has erected a
memorial commemorating
Communist negotiations in 1946 with the Nationalist government which
features a bronze statue of Zhou. Stamps commemorating the first
anniversary of Zhou's death were issued in 1977, and in 1998 to
commemorate his 100th birthday. Zhou
Enlai is regarded as a skilled negotiator, a master of policy
implementation, a devoted revolutionary, and a pragmatic statesman with
an unusual attentiveness to detail and nuance. He was also known for
his tireless and dedicated work ethic, and his unusual charm and poise
in public. He is reputedly the last Mandarin bureaucrat in the
Confucian tradition. Zhou's political behaviour should be viewed in
light of his political philosophy as well as his personality. To a
large extent, Zhou epitomized the paradox inherent in a communist
politician with traditional Chinese upbringing: at once conservative
and radical, pragmatic and ideological, possessed by a belief in order
and harmony as well as a faith, which he developed very gradually over
time, in the progressive power of rebellion and revolution. Henry Kissinger has called Zhou "one of the two or three most impressive men" he had ever met. Though
a firm believer in the Communist ideal on which the People's Republic
was founded, Zhou is widely believed to have moderated the excesses of
Mao's radical policies within the limits of his power. It has been
assumed that he protected imperial and religious sites of cultural
significance (such as the Potala Palace in Lhasa,
Tibet) from the Tibetan Red Guards, and shielded many top level
leaders, including Deng Xiaoping, as well as many academics and artists
from purges. Though
debunking of Chinese leaders has become more common in recent years,
Zhou has not shared in the personal charges leveled at Mao. A recent
biography by Gao Wenqian raises
questions, however. As a staffer at closed party archives, Gao had
access to internal files, interviews, memos, and compilations. He
smuggled out notes and documents with which to write a Chinese language
biography, published in Hong Kong in 1999, full of backstage
explanations of major events. Although not as prurient as recent inside
biographies of Mao, Gao's portrait implies that during the Cultural
Revolution, Zhou gave in to Mao's whims rather than consistently
mitigating them, and that he did not protect all of those he could
have. China scholar Andrew Nathan in
his introduction to the English version of Gao's book goes further.
Zhou Enlai was a man “unique… in his capacity to endure abasement”; one
who was Mao’s “indispensable yet despised assistant,” Mao’s “enabler”
who had a “servant mentality” and possessed “an inability to take
existential risks, a psychological need to be another leader’s number. Jonathan D. Spence, in his review of the book, notes that the title -- The Last Perfect Revolutionary --
is "deliberately sardonic," and is designed to show that "far from
being perfect, Zhou was in fact fallible, often devious, and capable of
great cruelty to his friends and fellow revolutionaries." |