June 04, 2010 <Back to Index>
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François Quesnay (June 4, 1694 – December 16, 1774) was a French economist of the Physiocratic school. He is known for publishing the "Tableau économique" (Economic Table) in 1758 , which provided the foundations of the ideas of the Physiocrats. This was perhaps the first work to attempt to describe the workings of the economy in an analytical way, and as such can be viewed as one of the first important contributions to economic thought. Quesnay was born at Merey, in today's Eure département, near Paris, the son of an advocate and small landed proprietor. Apprenticed at the age of sixteen to a surgeon, he soon went to Paris, studied medicine and surgery there, and, having qualified as a master-surgeon, settled down to practice at Mantes. In 1737 he was appointed perpetual secretary of the academy of surgery founded by François Gigot de la Peyronie, and became surgeon in ordinary to the king. In 1744 he graduated as a doctor of medicine; he became physician in ordinary to the king, and afterwards his first consulting physician, and was installed in the Palace of Versailles. His apartments were on the entresol, whence the Réunions de l'entresol received their name. Louis XV esteemed Quesnay much, and used to call him his thinker; when he ennobled him he gave him for arms three flowers of the pansy (derived from pensée, in French meaning thought), with the Latin motto Propter ex cogitationem mentis. He now devoted himself principally to economic studies, taking no part in the court intrigues which were perpetually going on around him. Around 1750 he became acquainted with Jean C.M.V. de Gournay (1712–1759), who was also an earnest inquirer in the economic field; and around these two distinguished men was gradually formed the philosophic sect of the Économistes, or, as they were afterwards called, the Physiocrates. The most remarkable men in this group of disciples were the elder Mirabeau (author of L'Ami des hommes, 1756-60, and Philosophie rurale, 1763), Nicolas Baudeau (Introduction a la philosophie économique, 1771), G.F Le Trosne (De l'ordre social, 1777), André Morellet (best known by his controversy with Galiani on the freedom of the grain trade during the Flour War), Mercier Larivière, and du Pont de Nemours. Adam Smith, during his stay on the continent with the young Duke of Buccleuch in 1764-1766, spent some time in Paris, where he made the acquaintance of Quesnay and some of his followers; he paid a high tribute to their scientific services in his Wealth of Nations. Quesnay died on December 16, 1774, having lived long enough to see his great pupil, Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune,
in office as minister of finance. He had married in 1718, and had a son
and a daughter; his grandson by the former was a member of the first
Legislative Assembly. The publications in which Quesnay expounded his system were the following: two articles, on "Fermiers" and on "Grains", in the Encyclopédie of Diderot and D'Alembert (1756, 1757); a discourse on the law of nature in the Physiocratie of Dupont de Nemours (1768); Maximes générales de gouvernement economique d'un royaume agricole (1758), and the simultaneously published Tableau économique avec son explication, ou extrait des économies royales de Sully (with the celebrated motto, Pauvres paysans, pauvre royaume; pauvre royaume, pauvre roi); Dialogue sur le commerce et les travaux des artisans; and other minor pieces. The Tableau économique,
though on account of its dryness and abstract form, met with little
general favor, may be considered the principal manifesto of the school.
It was regarded by the followers of Quesnay as entitled to a place
amongst the foremost products of human wisdom, and is named by the
elder Mirabeau, in a passage quoted by Adam Smith, as
one of the three great inventions which have contributed most to the
stability of political societies, the other two being those of writing
and of money. Its object was to exhibit by means of certain formulas
the way in which the products of agriculture,
which is the only source of wealth, would in a state of perfect liberty
be distributed among the several classes of the community (namely, the
productive classes of the proprietors and cultivators of land, and the
unproductive class composed of manufacturers and merchants), and to
represent by other formulas the modes of distribution which take place
under systems of Governmental restraint and regulation, with the evil
results arising to the whole society from different degrees of such
violations of the natural order. It follows from Quesnay's theoretic
views that the one thing deserving the solicitude of the practical
economist and the statesman is the increase of the net product; and he
infers also what Smith afterwards affirmed, on not quite the same
ground, that the interest of the landowner is strictly and indissolubly
connected with the general interest of the society. His economic writings are collected in the 2nd vol. of the Principaux économistes, published by Guillaumin, Paris, with preface and notes by Eugène Daire; also his OEuvres économiques et philosophiques were collected with an introduction and note by August Oncken (Frankfort, 1888); a facsimile reprint of the Tableau économique,
from the original MS., was published by the British Economic
Association (London, 1895). His other writings were the article
"Évidence" in the Encyclopédie, and Recherches sur l'évidence des vérites geometriques, with a Projet de nouveaux éléments de géometrie, 1773. Quesnay's Eloge was pronounced in the Academy of Sciences by Grandjean de Fouchy. Descriptions
of Quesnay’s economic theory are normally based on the texts which are
read from the point of view of today’s mainstream neoclassical theory.
Understood within a historical context and the point of view of the
contemporary classical economic theory, these texts reveal a different
content. Quesnay’s thinking is shaped by the systemic circulation of blood rediscovered by William Harvey in
1649. Quesnay financed his studies by engraving anatomical
copperplates, so he knew what he was talking about. At this time
physicians explained bloodletting according to Galen:
an infection can be cured by lowering blood pressure at a spot well
away from the infection. Quesnay – using a system of tubes –
demonstrated that to diminish pressure the spot is irrelevant. This
proof advanced
by a surgeon, someone quite below the social standing of physicians,
annoyed the physicians; but it gave fame to the country surgeon Quesnay
who in 1749 became personal physician of the Pompadour. This dispute was no a trifle, it was a clash between medical paradigms. Bloodletting was recommended by Galen, 129 – 200 AD, whose theories dominated Western medical science for
over a millennium, but whose original texts became accessible to
West-European physicians only by translations from Greek into Latin at
the beginning of the Renaissance.
According to Galen blood has a one-way flow from the heart to the
organs where it is consumed. Quesnay based his argument on the systemic circulation of blood rediscovered by William Harvey (1578–1657) in 1628, which became conclusive only when Malpighi in
1661 discovered the capillaries. So Quesnay’s argument supposed that
blood was recycled, something incomprehensible within the system of
Galen. It was a discussion between deaf. But there is an interesting
analogy in economic theory: As for Galen blood is consumed by organs
and for Harvey blood is recycled, so in neoclassical economics
commodities flow one-way to be destroyed by producing personal utility
and in classical economics at least the output of “productive” labour
is input to the next economic circle. Quesnay’s
interests in economics arose about 1750 when his position at the court
confronted him with France’s proximate national bankruptcy. He regarded
the economic circle of commodities as similar to the blood circle
dispensing with the pulmonary circle as the role of the lung was still
not understood. Lavoisier’s experiments with oxygen started
a bit later. As the heart has a special importance for the organs, so
has according to Quesnay agriculture for the social and economic system. Historically
France’s kings had a weak position vis-à-vis their barons. To
increase his independence the king impoverished the high nobility by
forcing them to be present at the Court, to outmatch each other in
luxury and to neglect their properties. The Palace of Versailles was built in this tradition. Half a percent of the population –
the high nobility boasting to descend from the Germanic conquerors and
the Church populated with nobles – drew almost the totality of the
nation’s net income. So the quasi-totality of demand for artisan and
industrial services came from a social sector who offered no input to
the circular economic flow.
And if Nobility and Church were irrelevant for economic reproduction,
so were those working for them: the artisans. Classical economic theory
from Adam Smith to John Stuart Mill made Quesnay’s argument about “unproductive labour” one
of its central propositions. In his Tableau Économique Quesnay
shows that the landed class (nobility and church) obtained agricultural
and industrial services but does not produce anything apart from
letting their land to the farmer, that the artisans paid to agriculture
and other artisans as much as they produced and that only the farmers
retained a net profit after restocking production costs and supplying
the landed class and the artisans. Of
course, Quesnay could not openly declare that the landed class and all
working for them were parasites. He could not criticise the system he
wanted to save. The politically correct way to say the same was to
declare artisans and manufacturers as “classe sterile”. So Quesnay
asserts a difference between the work an artisan and a farmer. The
price of industrial commodities is determined by costs of re-production.
Competition will level higher prices to this “natural” standard.
Agricultural prices are above costs of reproduction, so that only
agriculture creates wealth whereas all other sectors are only
reproductive. One reason that an increased agricultural supply does not
reduce prices is the quasi unlimited demand. Quesnay’s
distinction between agricultural and industrial prices can be
understood by the very different British distinction of these sectors. David Ricardo explains
that an increase in agricultural production will increase prices
because less productive land will be ploughed. But an increase of
production of industrial commodities will lower costs of production per
piece and therefore prices. To Quesnay this is the other way round,
historically quite correct. Adam Smith’s
famous assertion that a widening of markets leads to increased
production with decreasing unit costs because of a deepening of the
division of labour and induced inventions refers only to mass
production. The artisans of France however had a made-to-order
production; the production of luxury goods offers normally no economies of scale.
Quesnay coached Adam Smith in Paris to argue in economic circles and
Smith intended to dedicate him the “Wealth of Nations” had Quesnay not
died before.
But even Smith could not grasp some physiocratic ideas because of their
special relation to the French situation which was very different from
the British notably concerning the distribution of wealth. England’s
industrial revolution was preceded by an agrarian revolution which
adopted Chinese inventions – of course without acknowledging it. The
north of France showed already examples of a capitalistic agriculture
following the British line. An adoption of the British model for all of
France promised a surge of productivity as a precondition of a future
industrial development. Quesnay’s assertion that the future of France
lay in an agricultural development and not in the extension of present
industrial structures is an analytical master piece not equalled. The
demand of this future capitalistic agriculture for industrial goods
offers a new market for French industry. Serving this market French
industry and trade will become “productive” because its output becomes
the input of the next economic circle. And this industrial production
will show “decreasing costs”. To call industry and crafts a "classe
stérile“ is therefore generally false, but in this historical
situation correct. With Turgot as "contrôleur général des finances”, 1774, the first
steps were made to implement the physiocratic programme. But as many
personalities and groups made their profit from the former financial
chaos, Turgot’s reforms swelled the resistance. Abrogating grain
customs within France, he harmed many noble tax collectors who paid a
fix sum to the king to collect three times more. The bad harvest of
1774 raised wheat prices and tax collectors promoted rumours that now
with free trade even the king gained by grain speculation. People
marched to the gates of Versailles. When in 1776 Turgot proposed to
abolish enforced rural labour and the urban guilds as a first step to
abolish all privileges, the king sided with his enemies and asked for
Turgot’s resignation. His adversary Jacques Necker became
Director-General of Finance and the physiocratic ideas lost immediately
all importance in the Parisian salons where now Madame Necker was
presiding. More loans rather than raising taxes to fund the French debt
and the French involvement in the American Revolution paved the way for
the French Revolution. |