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Henri-Louis Bergson (18 October 1859 – 4 January 1941) was a major French philosopher, influential especially in the first half of the 20th century. Bergson
convinced people through his writing that immediate experience and
intuition were as important as rational and scientific thinking for
understanding reality. Bergson was born in the Rue Lamartine in Paris, not far from the Palais Garnier (the old Paris opera house) in 1859 (the year in which France emerged as a victor in the Second Italian War of Independence and over a month before the publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species). His father, the musician Michał Bergson had a Polish Jewish family
background (originally bearing the name Bereksohn). His mother,
Katherine Levison, daughter of a Yorkshire doctor, was from an English
and Irish Jewish
background. The Bereksohns were a famous Jewish entrepreneurial family
of Polish descent. Henri Bergson's great-great-grandfather, Szmul
Jakubowicz Sonnenberg, called Zbytkower, was a prominent banker and a protégé of Stanisław August Poniatowski, King
of Poland from 1764 to 1795. Henri Bergon's family lived in London for
a few years after his birth, and he obtained an early familiarity with
the English language from his mother. Before he was nine, his parents crossed the English Channel and settled in France, Henri becoming a naturalized citizen of the Republic. Henri Bergson married Louise Neuberger, a cousin of Marcel Proust (1871–1922), in 1891. They had a daughter, Jeanne, born deaf in 1896. Bergson's sister, Mina Bergson (also known as Moina Mathers), married the English occult author Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers, a founder of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, and the couple later relocated to Paris as well. Bergson lived the quiet life of a French professor, marked by the publication of his four principal works: in 1889, Time and Free Will (Essai sur les données immédiates de la conscience), in 1896, Matter and Memory (Matière et mémoire), in 1907, Creative Evolution (L'Evolution créatrice) and in 1932, The Two Sources of Morality and Religion (Les deux sources de la morale et de la religion). In 1900 the College of France selected Bergson to a Chair of Greek and Latin Philosophy, which he held until 1904. He then replaced Gabriel Tarde in the Chair of Modern Philosophy, which he held until 1920. The public attended his open courses in large numbers. Bergson attended the Lycée Fontaine (known as the Lycée Condorcet 1870-1874 and 1883- ) in Paris from 1868 to 1878. Having received a Jewish religious education, he of course read the Bible, including the Genesis. Between 14 and 16, however, he lost his faith. According to Hude (1990), this moral crisis is tied to his discovery of the theory of evolution, according to which humanity shares common ancestry with modern primates and was not necessarily created by a God or gods. While
at the lycée Bergson won a prize for his scientific work and
another, in 1877 when he was eighteen, for the solution of a
mathematical problem. His solution was published the following year in Annales de Mathématiques. It
was his first published work. After some hesitation as to whether his
career should lie in the sphere of the sciences or that of the humanities, he decided in favour of the latter, to the dismay of his teachers. When he was nineteen, he entered the famous École Normale Supérieure. During this period, he read Herbert Spencer. He obtained there the degree of Licence-ès-Lettres, and this was followed by that of Agrégation de philosophie in 1881. The same year he received a teaching appointment at the lycée in Angers, the ancient capital of Anjou. Two years later he settled at the Lycée Blaise-Pascal in Clermont-Ferrand, capital of the Puy-de-Dôme département. The
year after his arrival at Clermont-Ferrand Bergson displayed his
ability in the humanities by the publication of an edition of extracts from Lucretius, with a critical study of the text and of the materialist cosmology of the poet (1884), a work whose repeated editions give
sufficient evidence of its useful place in the promotion of classical
study among the youth of France. While teaching and lecturing in this
part of his country (the Auvergne region), Bergson found time for private study and original work. He crafted his dissertation Time and Free Will, which was submitted, along with a short Latin thesis on Aristotle (Quid Aristoteles de loco senserit), for his doctoral degree which was awarded by the University of Paris in 1889. The work was published in the same year by Félix Alcan. He also gave courses in Clermont-Ferrand on the Pre-Socratics, in particular on Heraclitus. Bergson dedicated Time and Free Will to Jules Lachelier (1832–1918), then public education minister, a disciple of Félix Ravaisson (1813–1900) and the author of a philosophical work On the Founding of Induction (Du
fondement de l'induction, 1871). Lachelier endeavoured "to substitute
everywhere force for inertia, life for death, and liberty for
fatalism". (Bergson owed much to both of these teachers of the École Normale Supérieure.) Bergson settled again in Paris, and after teaching for some months at the municipal college, known as the College Rollin, he received an appointment at the Lycée Henri-Quatre, where he remained for eight years. There, he read Charles Darwin and gave a course on him. Although Bergson had previously endorsed Lamarckism and its theory of the heritability of acquired characteristics, he came to prefer Darwin's hypothesis of gradual variations, which were more compatible with his continuist vision of life. In 1896 he published his second major work, entitled Matter and Memory. This rather difficult, but brilliant, work investigates the function of the brain and undertakes an analysis of perception and memory,
leading up to a careful consideration of the problems of the relation
of body and mind. Bergson had spent years of research in preparation
for each of his three large works. This is especially obvious in Matter and Memory,
where he showed a thorough acquaintance with the extensive pathological
investigations which had been carried out during the period. In 1898 Bergson became Maître de conférences at his alma mater, l'Ecole Normale Supérieure, and later in the same year received promotion to a Professorship. The year 1900 saw him installed as Professor at the Collège de France, where he accepted the Chair of Greek and Latin Philosophy in succession to Charles L'Eveque. At the First International Congress of Philosophy,
held in Paris during the first five days of August, 1900, Bergson read
a short, but important, paper, "Psychological Origins of the Belief in
the Law of Causality" (Sur les origines psychologiques de notre croyance à la loi de causalité). In 1900 Felix Alcan published a work which had previously appeared in the Revue de Paris, entitled Laughter (Le rire), one of the most important of Bergson's minor productions. This essay on
the meaning of comedy stemmed from a lecture which he had given in his
early days in the Auvergne. The study of it is essential to an
understanding of Bergson's views of life, and its passages dealing with
the place of the artistic in life are valuable. The main thesis of the
work is that laughter is
a corrective evolved to make social life possible for human beings. We
laugh at people who fail to adapt to the demands of society, if it
seems their failure is akin to an inflexible mechanism. Comic authors
have exploited this human tendency to laugh in various ways, and what
is common to them is the idea that the comic consists in there being
"something mechanical encrusted on the living". In 1901 the Académie des sciences morales et politiques elected Bergson as a member, and he became a member of the Institute. In 1903 he contributed to the Revue de métaphysique et de morale a very important essay entitled Introduction to Metaphysics (Introduction à la metaphysique),
which is useful as a preface to the study of his three large books. He
detailed in this essay his philosophical program, realized in the Creative Evolution. On the death of Gabriel Tarde,
the sociologist and philosopher, in 1904, Bergson succeeded him in the
Chair of Modern Philosophy. From 4 to 8 September of that year he
visited Geneva, attending the Second International Congress of Philosophy, when he lectured on The Mind and Thought: A Philosophical Illusion (Le cerveau et la pensée: une illusion philosophique). An illness prevented his visiting Germany to attend the Third Congress held at Heidelberg. His third major work, Creative Evolution, undoubtedly the
most widely known and most discussed of his books, appeared in 1907. It
constitutes one of the most profound and original contributions to the
philosophical consideration of evolution. Pierre Imbart de la Tour
remarked that Creative Evolution was a milestone of new direction in thought. By 1918, Alcan, the publisher, had issued twenty-one editions, making an average of two editions per annum for
ten years. Following the appearance of this book, Bergson's popularity
increased enormously, not only in academic circles, but among the
general reading public. At that time, Bergson had already made an extensive study of biology, knowing of the theory of fecundation (as shown by the first chapter of the Creative Evolution), which had only recently emerged, ca. 1885 — no small feat for a philosopher specializing in the history of philosophy, in particular of Greek and Latin philosophy. He also most certainly had read, apart from Darwin, Haeckel, from whom he retained his idea of a unity of life and of the ecological solidarity between all living beings, as well as Hugo de Vries, whom he quoted his mutation theory of evolution (which he opposed, preferring Darwin's gradualism). He also quoted Charles-Édouard Brown-Séquard, the successor of Claude Bernard at the Chair of Experimental Medicine in the College of France, etc. Bergson travelled to London in 1908 and met there with William James, the Harvard philosopher
who was Bergson's senior by seventeen years, and who was instrumental
in calling the attention of the Anglo-American public to the work of
the French professor. The two became great friends. James's impression
of Bergson is given in his Letters under date of 4 October 1908: "So
modest and unpretending a man but such a genius intellectually! I have
the strongest suspicions that the tendency which he has brought to a
focus, will end by prevailing, and that the present epoch will be a
sort of turning point in the history of philosophy." As early as 1880 James had contributed an article in French to the periodical La Critique philosophique, of Renouvier and Pillon, entitled Le Sentiment de l'Effort. Four years later a couple of articles by him appeared in the journal Mind:
"What is an Emotion?" and "On some Omissions of Introspective
Psychology". Bergson quoted the first two of these articles in his 1889
work, Time and Free Will. In the following years 1890-91 appeared the two volumes of James's monumental work, The Principles of Psychology,
in which he refers to a pathological phenomenon observed by Bergson.
Some writers, taking merely these dates into consideration and
overlooking the fact that James's investigations had been proceeding
since 1870 (registered from time to time by various articles which
culminated in "The Principles"), have mistakenly dated Bergson's ideas
as earlier than James's. It has been suggested that
Bergson owes the root ideas of his first book to the 1884 article by
James, "On Some Omissions of Introspective Psychology," which he
neither refers to nor quotes. This article deals with the conception of
thought as a stream of consciousness, which intellect distorts
by framing into concepts. Bergson replied to this insinuation by
denying that he had any knowledge of the article by James when he wrote Les données immédiates de la conscience. The
two thinkers appear to have developed independently until almost the
close of the century. They are further apart in their intellectual
position than is frequently supposed. Both have succeeded in appealing
to audiences far beyond the purely academic sphere, but only in their
mutual rejection of "intellectualism" as final is their real unanimity.
Although James was slightly ahead in the development and enunciation of
his ideas, he confessed that he was baffled by many of Bergson's
notions. James certainly neglected many of the deeper metaphysical
aspects of Bergson's thought, which did not harmonize with his own, and
are even in direct contradiction. In addition to this, Bergson can
hardly be considered a pragmatist. For him, "utility," far from being a
test of truth, was in fact the reverse: a synonym for error.
Nevertheless, William James hailed Bergson as an ally. In 1903 he wrote: I
have been re-reading Bergson's books, and nothing that I have read
since years has so excited and stimulated my thoughts. I am sure that
that philosophy has a great future, it breaks through old cadres and
brings things into a solution from which new crystals can be got. The most noteworthy tributes James paid to Bergson come in the Hibbert Lectures (A Pluralistic Universe), which James gave at Manchester College, Oxford,
shortly after meeting Bergson in London. He remarks on the
encouragement he has received from Bergson's thought, and refers to the
confidence he has in being "able to lean on Bergson's authority." The
influence of Bergson had led James "to renounce the intellectualist
method and the current notion that logic is
an adequate measure of what can or cannot be". It had induced him, he
continued, "to give up logic, squarely and irrevocably" as a method,
for he found that "reality, life, experience, concreteness, immediacy,
use what word you will, exceeds our logic, overflows, and surrounds it". These remarks, which appeared in James's book A Pluralistic Universe in
1909, impelled many English and American readers to an investigation of
Bergson's philosophy for themselves, but no English translations of
Bergson's major work had yet appeared. James, however, encouraged and
assisted Dr. Arthur Mitchell in his preparation of the English translation of Creative Evolution.
In August 1910 James died. It was his intention, had he lived to see
the completion of the translation, to introduce it to the English
reading public by a prefatory note of appreciation. In the following
year the translation was completed and still greater interest in
Bergson and his work was the result. By a coincidence, in that same
year (1911), Bergson penned a preface of sixteen pages entitled Truth and Reality for
the French translation of James's book, "Pragmatism". In it he
expressed sympathetic appreciation of James's work, coupled with
certain important reservations. In April (5th to 11th) Bergson attended the Fourth International Congress of Philosophy held at Bologna,
in Italy, where he gave an address on "Philosophical Intuition". In
response to invitations he visited England in May of that year, and on
several subsequent occasions. These visits were well received. His speeches offered new perspectives and elucidated many passages in his three major works: Time and Free Will, Matter and Memory, and Creative Evolution.
Although necessarily brief statements, they developed and enriched the
ideas in his books and clarified for English audiences the fundamental
principles of his philosophy. In May 1911 Bergson visited the University of Oxford, where he delivered two lectures entitled The Perception of Change (La perception du changement), which the Clarendon Press published in French in the same year. As
he had a delightful gift of lucid and brief exposition, when the
occasion demanded such treatment, these lectures on change formed a
most valuable synopsis or brief survey of the fundamental principles of
his thought, and served the student or general reader alike as an
excellent introduction to the study of the larger volumes. Oxford
honoured its distinguished visitor by conferring upon him the degree of Doctor of Science. Two days later he delivered the Huxley Lecture at the University of Birmingham, taking for his subject Life and Consciousness. This subsequently appeared in The Hibbert Journal (October, 1911), and since revised, forms the first essay in the collected volume Mind-Energy (L'Energie spirituelle). In October he again travelled to England, where he had an enthusiastic reception, and delivered at University College London four lectures on La Nature de l'Âme [The nature of the soul]. In 1913 Bergson visited the United States of America at the invitation of Columbia University,
New York, and lectured in several American cities, where very large
audiences welcomed him. In February, at Columbia University, he
lectured both in French and English, taking as his subjects: Spirituality and Freedom and The Method of Philosophy. Being again in England in May of the same year, he accepted the Presidency of the British Society for Psychical Research, and delivered to the Society an impressive address: Phantoms of Life and Psychic Research (Fantômes des vivants et recherche psychique). Meanwhile,
his popularity increased, and translations of his works began to appear
in a number of languages: English, German, Italian, Danish, Swedish,
Hungarian, Polish and Russian. In 1914 Bergson's fellow-countrymen
honoured him by his election as a member of the Académie française. He was also made President of the Académie des Sciences morales et politiques, and in addition he became Officier de la Légion d'honneur, and Officier de l'Instruction publique. Bergson found disciples of many varied types, and in France movements such as neo-Catholicism or Modernism on the one hand and syndicalism on
the other, endeavoured to absorb and to appropriate for their own
immediate use and propaganda some of the central ideas of his teaching.
The continental organ of socialist and syndicalist theory, Le Mouvement socialiste, portrayed the realism of Karl Marx and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon as
hostile to all forms of intellectualism, and that, therefore,
supporters of Marxian socialism should welcome a philosophy such as
that of Bergson. Other
writers, in their eagerness, asserted the collaboration of the Chair of
Philosophy at the College de France with the aims of the Confédération Générale du Travail and the Industrial Workers of the World.
It was claimed that there is harmony between the flute of personal
philosophical meditation and the trumpet of social revolution. While social revolutionaries endeavoured to make the most out of Bergson, many leaders of
religious thought, particularly the more liberal-minded theologians of
all creeds, e.g., the Modernists and Neo-Catholic Party in his own
country, showed a keen interest in his writings, and many of them
endeavoured to find encouragement and stimulus in his work. The Roman Catholic Church however took the step of banning Bergson's three books, accused of pantheism (that is, of conceiving of God as immanent to his Creation and of being himself created in the process of the Creation) by placing them upon the Index of prohibited books (Decree of 1 June 1914). In 1914, the Scottish universities arranged for Bergson to give the famous Gifford Lectures,
planning one course for the (northern-hemisphere) spring and another
for the autumn. Bergson delivered the first course, consisting of
eleven lectures, under the title of The Problem of Personality, at the University of Edinburgh in
the spring of that year. The course of lectures planned for the autumn
months had to be abandoned because of the outbreak of war. Bergson was
not, however, silent during the conflict, and he gave some inspiring
addresses. As early as 4 November 1914, he wrote an article entitled Wearing and Nonwearing forces (La force qui s'use et celle qui ne s'use pas), which appeared in that unique and interesting periodical of the poilus, Le Bulletin des Armées de la République Française. A presidential address, The Meaning of the War, was delivered in December, 1914, to the Académie des sciences morales et politiques. Bergson contributed also to the publication arranged by The Daily Telegraph in honour of King Albert I of the Belgians, King Albert's Book (Christmas, 1914). In 1915 he was succeeded in the office of President of the Académie des Sciences morales et politiques by Alexandre Ribot, and then delivered a discourse on "The Evolution of German Imperialism".
Meanwhile he found time to issue at the request of the Minister of
Public Instruction a brief summary of French Philosophy. Bergson did a
large amount of travelling and lecturing in America during the war. He
participated to the negotiations which led to the entry of the United States in the war. He was there when the French Mission under René Viviani paid a visit in April and May 1917, following upon America's entry into the conflict. Viviani's book La Mission française en Amérique (1917), contains a preface by Bergson. Early in 1918 the Académie française received Bergson officially when he took his seat among "The Select Forty" as successor to Emile Ollivier (the author of the historical work L'Empire libéral).
A session was held in January in his honour at which he delivered an
address on Ollivier. In the war, Bergson saw the conflict of Mind and
Matter, or rather of Life and Mechanism; and thus he shows us the
central idea of his own philosophy in action. To no other philosopher
has it fallen, during his lifetime, to have his philosophical
principles so vividly and so terribly tested. As
many of Bergson's contributions to French periodicals remained
relatively inaccessible, he agreed to the request of his friends to
have such works collected and published in two volumes. The first of
these was being planned when war broke out. The conclusion of strife
was marked by the appearance of a delayed volume in 1919 . It bears the
title Spiritual Energy: Essays and Lectures (L'Energie spirituelle: essais et conférences). The advocate of Bergson's philosophy in England, Dr. Wildon Carr, prepared an English translation under the title Mind-Energy.
The volume opens with the Huxley Memorial Lecture of 1911, "Life and
Consciousness", in a revised and developed form under the title
"Consciousness and Life". Signs of Bergson's growing interest in social
ethics and in the idea of a future life of personal survival are
manifested. The lecture before the Society for Psychical Research is
included, as is also the one given in France, L'Âme et le Corps,
which contains the substance of the four London lectures on the Soul.
The seventh and last article is a reprint of Bergson's famous lecture
to the Congress of Philosophy at Geneva in 1904, The Psycho-Physiological Paralogism (Le paralogisme psycho-physiologique), which now appears as Le cerveau et la pensée: une illusion philosophique.
Other articles are on the False Recognition, on Dreams, and
Intellectual Effort. The volume is a most welcome production and serves
to bring together what Bergson wrote on the concept of mental force,
and on his view of "tension" and "detension" as applied to the relation
of matter and mind. In June 1920, the University of Cambridge honoured him with the degree of Doctor of Letters.
In order that he might devote his full time to the great new work he
was preparing on ethics, religion, and sociology, the Collège de
France relieved Bergson of the duties attached to the Chair of Modern
Philosophy there. He retained the chair, but no longer delivered
lectures, his place being taken by his disciple, the mathematician and
philosopher Edouard Le Roy, who supported a conventionalist stance on the foundations of mathematics, which was adopted by Bergson. Le Roy, who also succeeded to Bergson at the Académie française and was a fervent Catholic, extended to revealed truth his conventionalism, leading him to privilege faith, heart and sentiment to dogmas, speculative theology and abstract reasonings. Like Bergson's, his writings were placed on the Index by the Vatican. Bergson then published Duration and Simultaneity: Bergson and the Einsteinian Universe (Durée et simultanéité), a book on physics, which he followed with a polemical conversation with Albert Einstein at the French Society of Philosophy. The
latter book has been often considered as one of his worst, many
alleging that his knowledge of physics was very insufficient, and that
the book did not follow up contemporary developments on physics. It was not published in the 1951 Edition du Centenaire in French, which contained all of his other works, and was only published later in a work gathering different essays, titled Mélanges. Duration and simultaneity took advantage of Bergson's experience at the League of Nations, where he presided starting in 1920 the International Commission on Intellectual Cooperation (the ancestor of the UNESCO, which included Einstein, Marie Curie, etc.). Living with his wife and daughter in a modest house in a quiet street near the Porte d'Auteuil in Paris, Bergson won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1927 for having written The Creative Evolution. Because of serious rheumatics ailments, he could not travel to Stockholm, and sent instead a text subsequently published in La Pensée et le mouvant. After
his retirement from the Collège, Bergson began to fade into
obscurity: he suffered from a degenerative illness (rheumatics, which
left him half paralyzed). He completed his new work, The Two Sources of Morality and Religion,
which extended his philosophical theories to the realms of morality,
religion and art, in 1935. It was respectfully received by the public
and the philosophical community, but all by that time realized that
Bergson's days as a philosophical luminary were past. He was, however,
able to reiterate his core beliefs near the end of his life, by
renouncing all of the posts and honours previously awarded him, rather
than accept exemption from the antisemitic laws imposed by the Vichy government. Bergson inclined to convert to Catholicism, writing on February 7, 1937: My thinking has always brought me nearer to Catholicism, in which I saw the perfect complement to Judaism. Though wishing to convert to Catholicism, he held off in view of the travails inflicted on the Jewish people by the Nazis and
by their French collaborators; he wanted to remain among the
persecuted. On 3 January 1941 Bergson died in occupied Paris from
pneumonia contracted after standing for several hours in a queue to be
registered as a Jew. A Roman Catholic priest said prayers at his funeral per his request. Henri Bergson is buried in the Cimetière de Garches, Hauts-de-Seine. |