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Leopold II (5 May 1747 – 1 March 1792), born Peter Leopold Joseph Anton Joachim Pius Gotthard, was Holy Roman Emperor and King of Hungary from 1790 to 1792, archduke of Austria and Grand Duke of Tuscany from 1765 to 1790. He was a son of Emperor Francis I and his wife, Empress Maria Theresa. Leopold was a moderate proponent of enlightened absolutism. Leopold was born in Vienna, the third son, and was at first educated for the priesthood, but the theological studies to which he was forced to apply himself are believed to have influenced him against the Church. Since 1753, he had been engaged to Maria Beatrice d'Este, heiress to the Duchy of Modena; the marriage never materialised, Maria Beatrice instead marrying Leopold's brother, Archduke Ferdinand. On the
death of his elder brother, Charles, in 1761, it was decided that he
should succeed to his father's grand
duchy of Tuscany, which was erected into a "secundogeniture" or apanage for a second son. This
settlement was the condition of his marriage on 5 August 1764 with Infanta Maria
Luisa
of Spain, daughter of Charles
III
of Spain and Maria
Amalia
of Saxony. On the death of his father, Francis I (18 August
1765), he succeeded to the grand duchy. Leopold was famous in Florence
for his numerous extra-marital affairs. Among his lovers was Countess
Cowper, wife of the 3rd
Earl
Cowper, who in compensation for being cuckolded was given
honours by Leopold's brother, Joseph II. For five
years, he exercised little more than nominal authority, under the
supervision of counsellors appointed by his mother. In 1770, he made a
journey to Vienna to secure the removal of this vexatious guardianship
and returned to Florence with a free hand. During the twenty years
which elapsed between his return to Florence and the death of his
eldest brother Joseph
II in
1790, he was
employed in reforming the administration of his small state. The
reformation was carried out by the removal of the ruinous restrictions
on industry and personal freedom imposed by his predecessors of the
house of Medici and left untouched during
his father's life, by the introduction of a rational system of
taxation, and by the execution of profitable public works, such as the
drainage of the Val di Chiana. As he had no army to maintain, and as he
suppressed the small naval force kept up by the Medici, the whole of
his revenue was left free for the improvement of his state. Leopold was
never popular with his Italian subjects. His disposition was cold and
retiring. His habits were simple to the verge of sordidness, though he
could display splendour on occasion, and he could not help offending
those of his subjects who had profited by the abuses of the Medicean
régime. But his
steady, consistent, and intelligent administration, which advanced step
by step, brought the grand duchy to a high level of material
prosperity. His ecclesiastical policy, which disturbed the deeply
rooted convictions of his people and brought him into collision with
the pope, was not successful. He was unable to secularize the property
of the religious houses or to put the clergy entirely under the control
of the lay power. However, his abolition of Capital
Punishment was the first permanent abolition in modern times. On 30
November 1786, after having de facto blocked capital executions (the
last was in 1769), Leopold promulgated the reform of the penal code
that abolished the death penalty and ordered the destruction of all the
instruments for capital execution in his land. Torture was also banned.
In 2000 Tuscany's regional authorities instituted an annual holiday on
30 November to commemorate the event. The event is also commemorated on
this day by 300 cities around the world celebrating the Cities for Life
Day. Leopold
also
approved and collaborated on the development of a political
constitution, said to have anticipated by many years the promulgation
of the French constitution and which presented some similarities with
the Virginia Bill of Rights of 1778. Leopold's concept of this was
based on respect for the political rights of citizens and on a harmony
of power between the executive and the legislative. However, it could
not be put into effect because Leopoldo moved to Vienna to become
emperor in 1790, and because it was so radically new that it garnered
opposition even from those who might have benefitted from it. However,
Leopold developed and supported many social and economic reforms. Smallpox vaccination was made
systematically available, and an early institution for the
rehabilitation of juvenile delinquents was founded. Leopold also
introduced radical reforms to the system of neglect and inhumane
treatment of those deemed mentally
ill. On 23 January 1774, the "legge sui pazzi" (law on the insane)
was established, the first of its kind to be introduced in all Europe,
allowing steps to be taken to hospitalize individuals deemed insane. A
few years later Leopold undertook the project of building a new
hospital, the Bonifacio. He used his skill at choosing collaborators to put a young physician, Vincenzo
Chiarugi, at its head. Chiarugi and his collaborators introduced
new humanitarian regulations in the running of the hospital and caring
for the mentally ill patients, including banning the use of chains and
physical punishment, and in so doing have been recognized as early
pioneers of what later came to be known as the moral
treatment movement. During
the last few years of his rule in Tuscany, Leopold had begun to be
frightened by the increasing disorders in the German and Hungarian
dominions of his family, which were the direct result of his brother's
headlong methods. He and Joseph II were tenderly attached to one
another and met frequently both before and after the death of their
mother. The portrait by Pompeo
Batoni in which
they appear together shows that they bore a strong personal resemblance
to one another. But it may be said of Leopold, as of Fontenelle,
that
his heart was made of brains. He knew that he must succeed his
childless eldest brother in Austria, and he was unwilling to inherit
his unpopularity. When, therefore, in 1789 Joseph, who knew himself to
be dying, asked him to come to Vienna and become co-regent, Leopold
coldly evaded the request. He was
still in Florence when Joseph II died at Vienna on 20 February 1790,
and he did not leave his Italian capital until 3 March 1790. Leopold,
during his government in Tuscany, had shown a speculative tendency to
grant his subjects a constitution. When he succeeded to the Austrian
lands, he began by making large concessions to the interests offended
by his brother's innovations. He recognized the Estates of his
different dominions as "the pillars of the monarchy", pacified the
Hungarians and Bohemians, and divided the insurgents in the Austrian
Netherlands (now Belgium)
by
means of concessions. When these failed to restore order, he marched
troops into the country and re-established his own authority, and at
the same time the historic franchises of the Flemings. Yet he did not
surrender any part that could be retained of what Maria Theresa and
Joseph had done to strengthen the hands of the state. He continued, for
instance, to insist that no papal
bull could be
published in his dominions without his consent (placetum regium). One
of the harshest actions Leopold took to placate the noble communities
of the various Habsburg domains was to issue a decree on 9 May 1790,
that forced thousands of Bohemian serfs freed by his brother Joseph
back into servitude. Leopold
lived for barely two years after his accession as Holy Roman Emperor,
and during that period he was hard pressed by peril from west and east
alike. The growing revolutionary disorders in France endangered the life of his
sister Marie
Antoinette
of Austria, the queen of Louis
XVI, and also threatened his own dominions with the spread of a
subversive agitation. His sister sent him passionate appeals for help,
and he was pestered by the royalist emigrants, who were intriguing to
bring about armed intervention in France. From the
east he was threatened by the aggressive ambition of Catherine
II
of Russia and by
the unscrupulous policy of Prussia.
Catherine
would have been delighted to see Austria and Prussia embark
on a crusade in the cause of kings against the French
Revolution. While they were busy beyond the Rhine,
she
would have annexed what remained of Poland and made conquests against
the Ottoman
Empire. Leopold II had no difficulty in seeing through the rather
transparent cunning of the Russian empress, and he refused to be misled. To his
sister, he gave good advice and promises of help if she and her husband
could escape from Paris.
The
emigrants who followed him pertinaciously were refused audience, or
when they forced themselves on him, were peremptorily denied all help.
Leopold was too purely a politician not to be secretly pleased at the
destruction of the power of France and of her influence in Europe by
her internal disorders. Within six weeks of his accession, he displayed
his contempt for her weakness by practically tearing up the treaty of
alliance made by Maria Theresa in 1756 and opening negotiations with England to impose a check on Russia
and Prussia. He was
able to put pressure on England by threatening to cede his part of the
Low Countries to France. Then, when sure of English support, he was in
a position to baffle the intrigues of Prussia. A personal appeal to Frederick
William
II led to a
conference between them at Reichenbach in July 1790, and to an
arrangement which was in fact a defeat for Prussia: Leopold's coronation as king of Hungary on 11 November 1790, preceded by a
settlement with the diet in which he recognized the dominant position
of the Magyars.
He
had already made an eight months' truce with the Turks in September,
which prepared the way for the termination of the war begun by Joseph
II, the peace of Sistova being signed in August
1791. The pacification of his eastern dominions left Leopold free to
re-establish order in Belgium and to confirm friendly
relations with England and Holland. During
1791, the emperor continued to be increasingly preoccupied with the
affairs of France. In January, he had to dismiss the Count of Artois,
afterwards Charles
X, king of France, in a very peremptory way. His good sense was
revolted by the folly of the French emigrants, and he did his utmost to
avoid being entangled in the affairs of that country. The insults
inflicted on Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette, however, at the time of
their attempted flight to Varennes in June, stirred his
indignation, and he made a general appeal to the sovereigns of Europe
to take common measures in view of events which "immediately
compromised the honour of all sovereigns, and the security of all
governments." Yet he was most directly interested in the conference at
Sistova, which in June led to a final peace with Turkey. On 25
August 1791, he met the king of Prussia at Pillnitz,
near Dresden,
and
they drew up a declaration of their readiness to intervene in
France if and when their assistance was called for by the other powers.
The declaration was a mere formality, for, as Leopold knew, neither
Russia nor England was prepared to act, and he endeavoured to guard
against the use which he foresaw the emigrants would endeavour to make
of it. In face of the agitation caused by the Pillnitz declaration in
France, the intrigues of the emigrants, and the attacks made by the
French revolutionists on the rights of the German princes in Alsace,
Leopold
continued
to hope that intervention might not be required. When
Louis XVI swore to observe the constitution of September 1791, the
emperor professed to think that a settlement had been reached in
France. The attacks on the rights of the German princes on the left
bank of the Rhine, and the increasing violence of the parties in Paris
which were agitating to bring about war, soon showed, however, that
this hope was vain. Leopold meant to meet the challenge of the
revolutionists in France with dignity and temper, however the effect of
the Declaration of Pillnitz was to contribute to the radicalization of
their political movement. He died
suddenly in Vienna, in March 1792. Like his
parents before him, Leopold had sixteen children, the eldest of his
eight sons being his successor, the Emperor Francis
II. Some of his other sons were prominent personages in their day.
Among them were: Ferdinand
III,
Grand Duke of Tuscany; the Archduke Charles
of Austria, a celebrated soldier; the Archduke
Johann
of Austria, also a soldier; the Archduke
Joseph,
Palatine of Hungary; and the Archduke
Rainer, Viceroy of Lombardy-Venetia. Mozart's
opera La
clemenza
di Tito was
commissioned by the Estates of Bohemia to be included among the
festivities that accompanied Leopold's coronation as king of Bohemia in Prague on 6 September 1791. |