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Søren Aabye Kierkegaard (5 May 1813 – 11 November 1855) was a Danish philosopher, theologian, and psychologist. Kierkegaard strongly criticised both the Hegelianism of his time and what he saw as the empty formalities of the Danish National Church. Much of his philosophical work deals with the issues of how one lives, focusing on the priority of concrete human reality over abstract thinking and highlighting the importance of personal choice and commitment. His theological work focuses on Christian ethics and the institution of the Church. His psychological works explore the emotions and feelings of individuals when faced with life choices. As part of his philosophical method, inspired by Socrates and the Socratic dialogues, Kierkegaard's early work was written under various pseudonymous characters who present their own distinctive viewpoints and interact with each other in complex dialogue. He assigns pseudonyms to explore particular viewpoints in-depth, which may take up several books in some instances, and Kierkegaard, or another pseudonym, critiques that position. Thus, the task of discovering the meaning of his works is left to the reader, because "the task must be made difficult, for only the difficult inspires the noble-hearted". Subsequently, scholars have interpreted Kierkegaard variously as, among others, an existentialist, neo-orthodoxist, postmodernist, humanist, and individualist. Crossing the boundaries of philosophy, theology, psychology, and literature, he is an immensely influential figure in contemporary thought. Søren Kierkegaard was born to an affluent family in Copenhagen. His mother, Ane Sørensdatter Lund Kierkegaard, had served as a maid in the household before marrying his father, Michael Pedersen Kierkegaard. She was an unassuming figure: quiet, plain, and not formally educated. She is not directly referred to in Kierkegaard's books, although she affected his later writings. His father was a melancholic, anxious, deeply pious, and fiercely intelligent man. Based on a biographical interpretation of anecdotes in Søren's unpublished journals, especially a rough draft to a story called "The Great Earthquake", some early Kierkegaard scholars argued that Michael believed he had earned God's wrath and that none of his children would outlive him. He is said to have believed that his personal sins, perhaps indiscretions like cursing the name of God in his youth or impregnating Ane out of wedlock, necessitated this punishment. Though five of his seven children died before he did, both Søren and his brother Peter Christian Kierkegaard, outlived him. Peter, who was seven years Søren's elder, later became bishop in Aalborg. This early introduction to the notion of sin and its connection from father and son is said by early biographers to have laid the foundation for much of Kierkegaard's work. Despite his father's occasional religious melancholy, Kierkegaard and his father shared a close bond. Kierkegaard is often said to have learned to explore the realm of his imagination through a series of exercises and games they played together, though this particular aspect of the relationship is described only by a pseudonym, in an unpublished draft to a book entitled Johannes Climacus, or de omnibus dubitandum est. Kierkegaard attended the School of Civic Virtue, where he studied Latin and history, among other subjects. In 1830, he went on to study theology at the University of Copenhagen, but while there he was drawn more towards philosophy and literature. Kierkegaard's
mother
died on 31 July 1834, age 66. One of the first physical
descriptions of Kierkegaard comes from an attendee, Hans Brøchner, at his brother Peter's wedding party in 1836: "I found
[his appearance] almost comical. He was then twenty-three years old; he
had something quite irregular in his entire form and had a strange
coiffure. His hair rose almost six inches above his forehead into a
tousled crest that gave him a strange, bewildered look." An
important aspect of Kierkegaard's life, one generally considered to
have had a major influence on his work, was his broken engagement to Regine
Olsen (1822 – 1904).
Kierkegaard and Olsen met on 8 May 1837 and were instantly attracted to
each other. In his journals, Kierkegaard wrote about his love for her:
"Thou sovereign of my heart treasured in the deepest fastness of my
chest, in the fullness of my thought, there [...] unknown divinity! Oh,
can I really believe the poet's tales, that when one first sees the
object of one's love, one imagines one has seen her long ago, that all
love like all knowledge is remembrance, that love too has its
prophecies in the individual." Kierkegaard's
father
died on 9 August 1838, age 82. Before his death, he is said to
have asked Søren to finish his education in theology.
Søren was deeply influenced by his father's religious experience
and wanted to fulfill his wish. On 11 August, Kierkegaard wrote: On
8
September 1840, Kierkegaard formally proposed to Olsen. However,
Kierkegaard soon felt disillusioned about the prospects of the
marriage. He broke off the engagement on 11 August 1841, though it is
generally believed that the two were deeply in love. In his journals,
Kierkegaard mentions his belief that his "melancholy" made him
unsuitable for marriage, but his precise motive for ending the
engagement remains unclear. Also in
1841, Kierkegaard wrote and defended his dissertation, On
the
Concept of Irony with Continual Reference to Socrates,
which was found by the university panel to be a noteworthy and
well-thought out work, but too informal and witty for a serious
academic thesis. He graduated from
university on 20 October 1841 with a Magister Artium, which today would
be designated a Ph.D. With his family's inheritance of approximately 31,000 rigsdaler,
Kierkegaard
was able to fund his education, his living, and several
publications of his early works. Although
Kierkegaard wrote a few articles on politics, women, and entertainment
in his youth and university days, many scholars, such as Alastair
Hannay and Edward
Mooney, believe Kierkegaard's first noteworthy work is either his
university thesis, On
the
Concept of Irony with Continual Reference to Socrates, which
was presented in 1841, or his masterpiece and arguably greatest work, Either/Or, which
was published in 1843. Both works treated major
figures in Western thought (Socrates in the former and, less
directly, Hegel and Friedrich
von
Schlegel in the
latter), and showcased Kierkegaard's unique style of writing. Either/Or was mostly written during Kierkegaard's stay in Berlin and was completed in the autumn of 1842. In the
same year Either/Or was published, Kierkegaard
found out Regine Olsen was engaged to be married to Johan
Frederik
Schlegel (1817 – 1896),
a
civil servant. This fact affected Kierkegaard and his subsequent
writings deeply. In Fear
and
Trembling, a discourse on the nature of faith published in
late 1843, one can interpret a section in the work as saying,
"Kierkegaard hopes that through a divine act, Regine would return to
him." Repetition,
published
on the very same day as Fear and Trembling, is an
exploration of love, religious experience and language reflected in a
series of stories about a young gentleman leaving his beloved. Several
other works in this period make similar overtones of the
Kierkegaard – Olsen relationship. Other
major works in this period include critiques of Georg
Wilhelm
Friedrich Hegel and
form a basis for existential
psychology. Philosophical Fragments, The
Concept
of Anxiety, and Stages
on
Life's Way include
observations
about existential choices and their consequences, and what
religious life can mean for a modern individual. Perhaps the most
valiant attack on Hegelianism is the Concluding Unscientific
Postscript to Philosophical Fragments which discusses the
importance of the individual, subjectivity as truth, and countering the
Hegelian claim that "The Rational is the Real and the Real is the
Rational". Most
of
the works in this authorship were philosophical and psychological in
nature and written using a pseudonym and indirectly, representing
different viewpoints and ways of life. However, Kierkegaard published
two or three theological discourses, written under his own name,
alongside each pseudonymous work. Kierkegaard's discourses
make an appeal to a different type of reader and present in a religious
context many of the same existential themes treated by his pseudonyms. On 22
December 1845, Peder
Ludvig
Møller, a young author of Kierkegaard's generation
who studied at the University of Copenhagen at the same time as
Kierkegaard, published an article indirectly criticising Stages
on
Life's Way. The article complimented Kierkegaard for his wit
and intellect, but questioned whether he would ever be able to master
his talent and write coherent, complete works. Møller was also a
contributor to and editor of The
Corsair, a Danish satirical paper that lampooned everyone of
notable standing. Kierkegaard published a sarcastic response, charging
that Møller's article was merely an attempt to impress
Copenhagen's literary elite. Kierkegaard's article earned him the ire
of the paper and its second editor, also an intellectual Kierkegaard's
own age, Meïr
Aron
Goldschmidt. Kierkegaard
wrote
two small pieces in response to Møller, The Activity of a
Traveling Esthetician and Dialectical
Result
of a Literary Police Action. The former focused on insulting
Møller's integrity while the latter was a directed assault on The Corsair, in
which Kierkegaard, after criticizing the journalistic quality and
reputation of the paper, openly asked The
Corsair to satirize
him. Over the next few months, The Corsair took
Kierkegaard up on his
offer to "be abused", and unleashed a series of attacks making fun of
Kierkegaard's appearance, voice, and habits. For months, Kierkegaard
perceived himself to be the victim of harassment on the streets of
Denmark. In a journal entry dated March 9, 1846, Kierkegaard made a
long, detailed explanation of his attack on Møller and The Corsair, and
also explained that this attack made him rethink his strategy of
indirect communication. In addition, Kierkegaard felt satisfied with
his writing so far, and intended to focus on becoming a priest. However,
Kierkegaard began to write again, and where his first authorship
focused on Hegel, this authorship focused on the hypocrisy of Christendom. By Christendom Kierkegaard meant not
Christianity itself, but rather the church and the applied religion of
his society. After the Corsair incident, Kierkegaard
became interested in "the public" and the individual's interaction with
it. His first work in this period of his life was Two
Ages:
A Literary Review which
was
a critique of the novel Two Ages (in some translations Two Generations)
written by Thomasine
Christine
Gyllembourg-Ehrensvärd. After
giving his critique of the story, Kierkegaard made several insightful
observations on the nature of the present age and its passionless
attitude towards life. One of his complaints about modernity is its passionless view of
the world. Kierkegaard writes that "the present age is essentially a
sensible age, devoid of passion [...] The trend today is in the
direction of mathematical equality, so that in all classes about so and
so many uniformly make one individual". In this, Kierkegaard attacks the conformity and assimilation of
individuals
into an indifferent public, "the crowd". Although Kierkegaard
attacks the public, he is supportive of communities where individuals
keep their diversity and uniqueness. Other
works continue to focus on the superficiality of "the crowd" attempting
to limit and stifle the unique individual. The
Book
on Adler is
a work about Pastor Adolph
Peter
Adler's claim
to have had a sacrilegious revelation and to have suffered ostracism and expulsion from the
pastorate as a consequence. According to biographer Walter Lowrie,
Kierkegaard experienced similar social exclusion which actually brought
him closer to his father. As part
of his analysis of the "crowd", Kierkegaard accused the Christian
church of decay and
decadence, especially the Danish
National Church. Kierkegaard believed Christendom had "lost its
way" on the Christian faith. According to him, Christendom in this
period ignored, skewed, or gave mere 'lip service' to the original
Christian doctrine. Kierkegaard felt his duty in this later era was to
inform others about what he considered the shallowness of so-called
"Christian living". He wrote several works on contemporary Christianity such as Christian
Discourses, Works
of
Love, and Edifying
Discourses
in Diverse Spirits. The
Sickness
Unto Death is
one of Kierkegaard's most popular works of this era, and although some
contemporary atheistic philosophers and psychologists dismiss
Kierkegaard's suggested solution as faith,
his
analysis on the nature of despair is one of the best accounts
on the subject and has been emulated in subsequent philosophies, such as Heidegger's
concept
of existential
guilt and Sartre's bad
faith. Around 1848, Kierkegaard began a literary attack on the Danish
National
Church with
books such as Practice
in
Christianity, For
Self-Examination, and Judge
for
Yourselves!, which attempted to expound the true nature of
Christianity, with Jesus as its role model. In 1847,
Regine Olsen, Kierkegaard's former fiancée, and Frederik
Schlegel were married. On several occasions in 1849, she and
Kierkegaard crossed paths on the streets of Copenhagen. Kierkegaard
wrote to her husband, asking for permission to speak to her, but Schlegel refused. Soon afterwards, the couple left the country,
Schlegel having been appointed Governor General of the Danish
West Indies.
By the time they returned, Kierkegaard was dead. A few
years before his death, Kierkegaard stated in his will that she should
inherit his estate, and all his authorial activity was dedicated to
her. Regine Schlegel lived until 1904 and was buried near Kierkegaard
in the Assistens
Cemetery in
Copenhagen. Kierkegaard's
final
years were taken up with a sustained, outright attack on the Danish
National
Church by
means of newspaper articles published in The Fatherland (Fædrelandet)
and a series of self-published pamphlets called The Moment (Øjeblikket). Kierkegaard was initially
called to action after Professor Hans
Lassen
Martensen gave
a speech in church in which he called his recently deceased predecessor
Bishop Jakob P. Mynster a "truth-witness, one of the authentic
truth-witnesses." Kierkegaard
was
fond of Mynster, but had come to see that Mynster's conception of
Christianity was mistaken and demanded too little of its adherents.
Kierkegaard believed that, in no way, was Mynster's life comparable to
that of a real 'truth-witness'. Before the tenth chapter of his work The Moment could be published,
Kierkegaard collapsed on the street and was eventually taken to a
hospital. He stayed in the hospital for over a month and refused to
receive communion from a pastor. At that time Kierkegaard regarded the
pastor as a mere political official with a niche in society who was
clearly not representative of the divine. He said to Emil Boesen, a
friend since childhood who kept a record of his conversations with
Kierkegaard, that his life had been one of immense suffering, which may
have seemed like vanity to others, but he did not think it so. Kierkegaard
died
in Frederik's
Hospital after
being there for over a month, possibly from complications from a fall
he had taken from a tree in his youth. He was interred in the Assistens
Kirkegård in
the Nørrebro section of Copenhagen. At
Kierkegaard's funeral, his nephew Henrik Lund caused a disturbance by
protesting the burying of Kierkegaard by the official church. Lund
maintained that Kierkegaard would never have approved, had he been
alive, as he had broken from and denounced the institution. Lund was
later fined for his public disruption of a funeral.
Kierkegaard
has
been called a philosopher, a theologian, the Father of
Existentialism, both atheistic and theistic variations, a literary critic, a social theorist, a humorist, a psychologist, and a poet. Two of his popular ideas
are "subjectivity", and the notion popularly
referred to as "leap of faith". The leap
of
faith is his
conception of how an individual would believe in God or how a person
would act in love. Faith is not a decision based on evidence that, say,
certain beliefs about God are true or a certain person is worthy of
love. No such evidence could ever be enough to pragmatically justify
the kind of total commitment involved in true religious faith or
romantic love. Faith involves making that commitment anyway.
Kierkegaard thought that to have faith is at the same time to have
doubt. So, for example, for one to truly have faith in God, one would
also have to doubt one's beliefs about God; the doubt is the rational
part of a person's thought involved in weighing evidence, without which
the faith would have no real substance. Someone who does not realize
that Christian doctrine is inherently doubtful and that there can be no
objective certainty about its truth does not have faith but is merely
credulous. For example, it takes no faith to believe that a pencil or a
table exists, when one is looking at it and touching it. In the same
way, to believe or have faith in God is to know that one has no
perceptual or any other access to God, and yet still has faith in God. As Kierkegaard writes,
"doubt is conquered by faith, just as it is faith which has brought
doubt into the world". Kierkegaard
also
stressed the importance of the self, and the self's relation to
the world as being grounded in self-reflection and introspection. He
argued in Concluding
Unscientific
Postscript to Philosophical Fragments that "subjectivity is
truth" and "truth is subjectivity." This has to do with a distinction
between what is objectively true and an individual's subjective
relation (such as indifference or commitment) to that truth. People who
in some sense believe the same things may
relate to those beliefs quite differently. Two individuals may both
believe that many of those around them are poor and deserve help, but
this knowledge may lead only one of them to decide to actually help the
poor.
Kierkegaard
primarily
discusses subjectivity with regard to religious matters,
however. As already noted, he argues that doubt is an element of faith
and that it is impossible to gain any objective certainty about
religious doctrines such as the existence of God or the life of Christ.
The most one could hope for would be the conclusion that it is probable
that the Christian doctrines are true, but if a person were to believe
such doctrines only to the degree they seemed likely to be true, he or she would
not be genuinely religious at all. Faith consists in a subjective
relation of absolute commitment to these doctrines. |