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Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Count of Oeiras, 1st Marquis of Pombal (Marquês de Pombal; 13 May 1699 – 8 May 1782) was an 18th century Portuguese statesman. He was Minister of the Kingdom (the equivalent to a today's prime minister) in the government of Joseph I of Portugal from 1750 to 1777. Undoubtedly the most prominent minister in the government, he is considered today to have been the de facto head of government. Pombal is notable for his swift and competent leadership in the aftermath of the 1755 Lisbon earthquake. He implemented sweeping economic policies in Portugal to regulate commercial activity and standardize quality throughout the country. Pombal was instrumental in weakening the grip of the Inquisition. The term Pombaline is used to describe not only his tenure, but also the architectural style which formed after the great earthquake. Pombal introduced many fundamental administrative, educational, economic, and ecclesiastical reforms justified in the name of "reason" and instrumental in advancing secularization. However, historians argue that Pombal’s "enlightenment," while far-reaching, was primarily a mechanism for enhancing autocracy at the expense of individual liberty and especially an apparatus for crushing opposition, suppressing criticism, and furthering colonial economic exploitation as well as intensifying book censorship and consolidating personal control and profit.
Sebastião
José
de Carvalho e Melo was born in Lisbon,
the
son of Manuel de
Carvalho e Ataíde, a country squire with properties in the Leiria region, and of his wife Teresa Luísa de
Mendonça e Melo. During his youth he studied at the University
of
Coimbra and
then
served briefly in the army. He then moved to Lisbon and eloped with
Teresa de Mendonça e Almada (1689 – 1737), the niece of the
Count of Arcos Sebastião. The marriage was a turbulent one, as
his
wife had married him against her family's wishes. The in-laws made life
unbearable for the young couple; the newlyweds eventually moved to
Melo's properties near Pombal. In 1738,
Melo received his first public appointment as the Portuguese ambassador
to Great
Britain. In 1745, he served as the Portuguese ambassador to Austria.
The Queen
consort of
Portugal, Archduchess Mary
Anne
Josepha of Austria (1683 – 1754),
was
fond of him; after his first wife died she arranged for him to
marry the daughter of the Austrian Field Marshal Leopold
Josef,
Count von Daun. King John,
however,
was not pleased and recalled him in 1749. John V died the
following year and his son Joseph
I
of Portugal was crowned. Joseph I was fond of Melo; with the Queen Mother's approval he
appointed him as Minister of Foreign Affairs. As the King's confidence
in him increased, the King entrusted him with more control of the state. By 1755,
the King appointed him Prime Minister. Impressed by English economic
success, which he had witnessed while he was Ambassador, he
successfully implemented similar economic policies in Portugal. He
abolished slavery in Portugal and the Portuguese
colonies in India, reorganized the army and the navy, abolished the Autos
de
fé and
ended the Limpeza
de
Sangue (cleanliness
of blood) statutes and their discrimination against New
Christians, the Jews that
had
converted to Christianity,
and
their descendents regardless of genealogical distance, in order to
escape the Portuguese
Inquisition. The Pombaline Reforms were a series of reforms
with the goal of making Portugal an economically self-sufficient and
commercially strong nation, by means of expanding Brazilian territory, streamlining the
administration of colonial
Brazil, and fiscal and economic reforms both in the Colony and in Portugal. During the Age
of
Enlightenment Portugal
was
considered small and lagging behind. It was a country of three
million people in 1750; 200,000 people lived in the nation's 538
monasteries. The
economy
of Portugal before the reforms was a relatively stable one,
though it had become dependent on colonial Brazil for much of its
economic support, and England for much of its
manufacturing support, based on the Methuen
Treaty of 1703.
Even exports from Portugal went mostly through expatriate merchants
like the English port
wine shippers and
French businessmen like Jácome
Ratton, whose Memoirs are scathing about the efficiency of his
Portuguese counterparts. The need to grow a manufacturing sector in
Portugal was made more imperative by the excessive spending of the
Portuguese crown, the 1755
Lisbon
Earthquake, the expenditures on wars with Spain for Brazilian territory,
and the exhaustion of gold mines and diamond mines in Brazil. His
greatest reforms were, however, economic and financial, with the
creation of several companies and guilds to regulate every commercial activity. He created the Douro
Wine
Company which
demarcated the Douro
wine
region for
production of Port,
to
ensure the wine's quality; his was the first attempt to control wine
quality and production in Europe. He ruled with a heavy hand, imposing
strict laws upon all classes of Portuguese society, from the high
nobility to the poorest working class, and via his widespread review of
the country's tax system. These reforms
gained him enemies in the upper classes, especially among the high
nobility, who despised him as a social upstart. Further
important reforms were carried out in education by Melo: he expelled the Jesuits in 1759, created the basis
for secular public primary and secondary schools, introduced vocational
training, created hundreds of new teaching posts, added departments of
mathematics and natural sciences to the University
of
Coimbra, and introduced new taxes to pay for these reforms. Having
lived in Vienna and London,
the
latter city in particular being a major centre of the
Enlightenment, Melo increasingly believed that the Society of Jesus,
also known as "Jesuits",
with
their grip on science and education, were an inherent drag on an
independent, Portuguese style iluminismo.
He
was especially familiar with the anti-Jesuit tradition of Britain,
and in Vienna he had made friends with Gerhard
van Swieten, a confidant of Maria
Theresa
of Austria and
a staunch adversary of the Austrian Jesuits' influence. As prime
minister Melo engaged the Jesuits in a propaganda war, which was watched
closely by the rest of Europe, and he launched a number of conspiracy theories regarding
the order's desire for power. During the Távora
affair
he accused the Society of Jesus of treason and attempted regicide, a
major public relations catastrophe for the order, in the age of absolutism. The
Jesuits and their apologists emphasized the order's role in trying to
protect native
Americans in the
Portuguese and Spanish colonies, and the fact that the limitations
placed upon the order resulted in the so-called Guarani
War in which the Guarani tribesmen were decimated by
Spanish and Portuguese troops. However, at the time such arguments
counted for far less than charges connected with the Jesuits' alleged
activities in Europe. Owing to
the fact that the Jesuits were the chief inquisitors in Portugal in the
18th century, Pombal’s efforts against their order was instrumental in
weakening the grip of the Inquisition. Pombal was thus an
important precursor for the suppression
of
the Jesuits throughout Europe
and its colonies, which culminated in 1773, when Pope
Clement
XIV abolished
the order.
Disaster
fell
upon Portugal on the morning of November 1, 1755, when Lisbon was
struck by a violent earthquake with an estimated magnitude of 9 on the Richter
scale. The city was razed by the earthquake and ensuing tsunami and fires. Melo survived by
a stroke of luck, and then immediately embarked on rebuilding the city,
with his famous quote: What
now?
We bury the dead and heal the living. Despite the calamity,
Lisbon suffered no epidemics, and within less than a year it was
already being rebuilt. The new central area of Lisbon was designed to
resist subsequent earthquakes. Architectural models were built for
tests, and the effects of an earthquake were simulated by marching
troops around the models. The buildings and major squares of the Pombaline
Downtown of Lisbon
are one of Lisbon's main tourist attractions: they are the world's
first earthquake-proof buildings. Melo made also an important
contribution to the study of seismology,
by
designing a survey that was sent to every parish in the country. The
questionnaire asked whether dogs or other animals behaved strangely
prior to the earthquake, whether there was a noticeable difference in
the rise or fall of the water level in wells, and how many buildings
had been destroyed and what kind of destruction had occurred. The
answers have allowed modern Portuguese scientists to reconstruct the
event with precision.
Following
the
earthquake, Joseph I gave his Prime Minister even more authority,
and Melo became a powerful, progressive dictator. As his power grew,
his enemies increased in number, and bitter disputes with the high
nobility became frequent. In 1758, Joseph I was wounded in an attempted
assassination when he was returning from a visit to his mistress, a
young Távora Marchioness. The Távora family and the Duke
of Aveiro were implicated, and they were executed after a quick trial.
The Jesuits were
expelled
from the country, and their assets confiscated by the crown.
Melo showed no mercy, prosecuting every person involved, even women and
children. This was the final stroke that broke the power of the
aristocracy and ensured the Prime Minister's victory against his
enemies. In reward for his swift resolve, Joseph I made his loyal
minister Count of Oeiras in 1759. Following the Távoras affair,
the new Count of Oeiras knew no opposition. Made Marquis of Pombal in 1770, he effectively
ruled Portugal until Joseph I's death in 1777. In 1761
Spain concluded
an
alliance with
France by which Spain would enter the Seven
Years
War in an
effort to prevent British hegemony. The
two countries saw Portugal as Britain's closest trading partner,
and as a virtual dependency of
London. As part of a
wider plan to isolate and defeat Britain, Spanish and French envoys
were sent to Lisbon to demand that the King and Pombal agree to cease
all trade or co-operation with Britain or face war. While Pombal was
keen to make Portugal less dependent on Britain, this was a long term
goal, and he and the King rejected the Bourbon ultimatium. In 1762
Spain declared war and sent troops across the border. While they were
successful in capturing
Almeida they were
soon ground to a halt. Pombal had sent urgent messages to London
requesting military assistance, and several thousand British troops
arrived. Following the Battle of Valencia
de
Alcántara, the Spanish were driven back across the
border. The Treaty
of
Paris called for
the restoration of all Portuguese territory in exchange for the British
handing back Cuba,
and
Almeida was evacuated. In the
years after the invasion, and despite the crucial British assistance,
Pombal began to be increasingly concerned at the rise of British power.
Despite being an Anglophile he suspected the British
coveted Brazil and he was alarmed by the
seeming ease by which they had taken
Havana and Manila in 1762. King
Joseph's successor, Queen Maria
I
of Portugal, loathed the Marquis. She never forgave him for the
ruthlessness he had displayed against the Távora family, and
upon her accession to the throne, she did what she had long vowed to
do: she withdrew all his political offices. Also, she issued one of
history's first restraining orders, commanding that the Marquis not be
closer than 20 miles from her presence. If she were to travel near his
estates, he was compelled to remove himself from his house to fulfill
the royal decree. The slightest reference in her hearing to Pombal is
said to have induced fits of rage in the Queen. Pombal
built a palatial villa named Oeiras. The villa
featured formal French gardens enlivened
with
traditional Portuguese glazed tile walls. There
were waterfalls and waterworks set within
vineyards. Pombal
died peacefully on his estate at Pombal in 1782. Today, Lisbon's
most important square and busiest underground station is named Marquês de Pombal in his honor. There is an
imposing statue of the Marquis in the square as well. João
Francisco
de Saldanha Oliveira e Daun, 1st Duke of Saldanha was a grandson. |