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Lorenz Oken (August 1, 1779 – August 11, 1851) was a German naturalist. Oken was born Lorenz Okenfuss in Bohlsbach (now part of Offenburg) in Baden and studied natural history and medicine at the universities of Freiburg and Würzburg. He went on to the University of Göttingen, where he became a Privatdozent (unsalaried lecturer), and shortened his name to Oken. As Lorenz Oken, he published a small work entitled Grundriss der Naturphilosophie, der Theorie der Sinne, mit der darauf gegründeten Classification der Thiere (1802). This was the first of a series of works which established him as the leader of the movement of "Naturphilosophie" in Germany. In it he extended to physical science the philosophical principles which Immanuel Kant had applied to epistemology and morality. Oken had been preceded in this by Gottlieb Fichte, who, acknowledging that Kant had discovered the materials for a universal science, declared that all that was needed was a systematic coordination of these materials. Fichte undertook this task in his "Doctrine of Science" (Wissenschaftslehre), whose aim was to construct all knowledge by a priori means. This attempt, which was merely sketched out by Fichte, was further elaborated by the philosopher Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling. Oken built on Schelling's work, producing a synthesis of what he held Schelling to have achieved. Oken produced the 7 volume series "Allgemeine Naturgeschichte für alle Stände", with engravings by Johann Conrad Susemihl, and published in Stuttgart by Hoffman between 1839 - 184l. In the Grundriss der Naturphilosophie of
1802 Oken sketched the outlines of the scheme he afterwards devoted
himself to perfecting. The position advanced in that work, to which he
continued to adhere, is that "the animal classes are virtually nothing
else than a representation of the sense - organs, and that they must be
arranged in accordance with them." In accordance with this idea, Oken
contended that there are only five animal classes: In 1805 Oken made a further advance in the application of the a priori principle, in a book on generation (Die Zeugung),
in which he maintained that "all organic beings originate from and
consist of vesicles or cells. These vesicles, when singly detached and
regarded in their original process of production, are the infusorial
mass or protoplasma (Urschleim) whence all larger organisms
fashion themselves or are evolved. Their production is therefore
nothing else than a regular agglomeration of Infusoria -- not, of course,
of species already elaborated or perfect, but of mucous vesicles or
points in general, which first form themselves by their union or
combination into particular species." A
year after the production of this treatise, Oken developed his system
one stage further, and in a volume published in 1806, written with the
assistance of Dietrich Georg von Kieser (1779 - 1862), entitled Beiträge zur vergleichenden Zoologie, Anatomie, und Physiologie, he demonstrated that the intestines originate from the umbilical
vesicle, and that this corresponds to the vitelius or yolk - bag. Caspar Friedrich Wolff had previously claimed to demonstrate this fact in the chick (Theoria Generationis,
1774), but he did not see its application as evidence of a general law.
Oken showed the importance of the discovery as an illustration of his
system. In the same work Oken described and recalled attention to the
corpora Wolffiana, or "primordial kidneys." The reputation of the young Privatdozent of Göttingen had reached the ear of Goethe, and in 1807 Oken was invited to fill the office of Extraordinary Professor of the Medical Sciences at the University of Jena.
He selected for the subject of his inaugural discourse his ideas on the
"Signification of the Bones of the Skull," based on a discovery of the
previous year. This lecture was delivered in the presence of Goethe, as
privy councillor and rector of the university, and was published in the
same year, with the title, Ueber die Bedeutung der Schädelknochen. With regard to the origin of the idea, Oken narrates in his Isis that, walking one autumn day in 1806 in the Harz forest,
he stumbled on the blanched skull of a deer, picked up the partially
dislocated bones, and contemplated them for a while, when it suddenly
occurred to him, "It is a vertebral column!" At a meeting of the German
naturalists held at Jena some years afterwards, Professor Kieser gave
an account of Oken's discovery in the presence of the grand duke, which
is printed in the Tageblatt,
or "proceedings,” of that meeting. The professor stated that Oken told
him of his discovery when journeying in 1806 to the island of Wangerooge. On their return to Göttingen Oken explained his ideas by reference to the skull of a turtle in
Kieser's collection, which he disarticulated for that purpose. Kieser
displayed the skull, its bones marked in Oken's handwriting. Oken's
lectures at Jena were wide ranging, and were highly regarded at the
time. The subjects included natural philosophy, general natural history, zoology, comparative anatomy, the physiology of
man, of animals and of plants. The spirit with which he grappled with
the vast scope of science is characteristically illustrated in his essay Ueber das Universum als Fortsetzung des Sinnensystems,
1808. In this work he lays it down that "organism is none other than a
combination of all the universe's activities within a single individual
body." This doctrine led him to the conviction that "world and organism
are one in kind, and do not stand merely in harmony with each other."
In the same year he published his Erste Ideen zur Theorie des Lichts, &c.,
in which he advanced the proposition that "light could be nothing but a
polar tension of the ether, evoked by a central body in antagonism with
the planets, and heat was none other than a motion of this ether" -- a
sort of vague anticipation of the doctrine of the "correlation of
physical forces." In
1809 Oken extended his system to the mineral world, arranging the ores,
not according to the metals, but agreeably to their combinations with
oxygen, acids and sulphur. In 1810 he summed up his views on organic
and inorganic nature into one compendious system. In the first edition
of the Lehrbuch der Naturphilosophie,
which appeared in that and the following years, he sought to bring his
different doctrines into mutual connection, and to "show that the
mineral, vegetable and animal kingdoms are not to be arranged
arbitrarily in accordance with single and isolated characters, but to
be based upon the cardinal organs or anatomical systems, from which a
firmly established number of classes would necessarily be evolved; that
each class, moreover, takes its starting point from below, and
consequently that all of them pass parallel to each other"; and that,
"as in chemistry, where the combinations follow a definite numerical
law, so also in anatomy the organs, in physiology the functions, and in
natural history the classes, families, and even genera of minerals,
plants, and animals present a similar arithmetical ratio." The Lehrbuch procured for Oken the title of Hofrath, or court councillor, and in 1812 he was appointed ordinary professor of the natural sciences. In 1816 Oken began publication of his well known periodical, Isis, eine encyclopädische Zeitschrift, vorzüglich für Naturgeschichte, vergleichende Anatomie und Physiologie.
In this journal appeared essays and notices on the natural sciences and
other subjects of interest; poetry, and even comments on the politics
of other German states, were occasionally admitted. This led to
representations and remonstrances from the governments criticized or
impugned, and the court of Weimar called upon Oken either to suppress
the Isis or resign his professorship. He chose the latter alternative.
The publication of the Isis at Weimar was prohibited. Oken made arrangements for its issue at Rudolstadt, and this continued uninterruptedly until the year 1848. In 1822 Oken promulgated in Isis the
first idea of the annual general meetings of the German naturalists and
medical practitioners, which happy idea was realized in the following
year, when the first meeting was held at Leipzig. The British
Association for the Advancement of Science was at the outset avowedly
organized after the German or Okenian model. In 1828 Oken resumed his
original humble duties as privatdocent in the newly established university of Munich,
and soon afterwards he was appointed ordinary professor in the same
university. In 1832, on the proposal by the Bavarian government to
transfer him to a professorship in a provincial university of the
state, he resigned his appointments and left the kingdom. He was
appointed in 1833 to the professorship of natural history in the then recently established university of Zürich.
There he continued to reside, fulfilling his professional duties and
promoting the progress of his favourite sciences, until his death. All
of Oken's writings are deductive illustrations of an assumed principle,
which, with other philosophers of the transcendental school, he deemed
equal to the explanation of all the mysteries of nature. According to
him, the head was a repetition of the trunk -- a kind of second trunk,
with its limbs and other appendages; this sum of his observations and
comparisons -- few of which he ever gave in detail -- ought always to be
borne in mind in comparing the share taken by Oken in homological anatomy
with the progress made by other cultivators of that philosophical
branch of the science. The idea of the analogy between the skull, or
parts of the skull, and the vertebral column had been previously
propounded and ventilated in their lectures by Johann Heinrich Ferdinand von Autenrieth and Carl Friedrich Kielmeyer, and in the writings of Johann Peter Frank.
By Oken it was applied chiefly in illustration of the mystical system
of Schelling -- the "all-in-all" and "all-in-every-part." From the
earliest to the latest of Oken's writings on the subject, "the head is
a repetition of the whole trunk with all its systems: the brain is the
spinal cord; the cranium is the vertebral column; the mouth is
intestine and abdomen; the nose is the lungs and thorax; the jaws are
the limbs; and the teeth the claws or nails." Johann Baptist von Spix, in his folio Cephalogenesis (1818), richly illustrated comparative craniology, but presented the facts under the same transcendental guise; and Georges Cuvier availed
himself of the extravagances of these disciples of Schelling to cast
ridicule on the whole inquiry into those higher relations of parts to
the archetype which Sir Richard Owen called "general homologies." The
vertebral theory of the skull had practically disappeared from
anatomical science when the labours of Cuvier drew to their close. In
Owen's Archetype and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton the
idea was not only revived but worked out for the first time
inductively, and the theory rightly stated, as follows: "The head is
not a virtual equivalent of the trunk, but is only a portion, i.e.
certain modified segments, of the whole body. The jaws are the 'haeinal
arches' of the first two segments; they are not limbs of the head". Vaguely and strangely, however, as Oken had blended the idea with his a priori conception
of the nature of the head, the chance of appropriating it seems to have
overcome the moral sense of Goethe -- unless indeed the poet deceived
himself. Comparative osteology had early attracted Goethe's attention.
In 1786 he published at Jena his essay Ueber den Zwischenkieferknochen des Menschen und der Thiere,
showing that the intermaxillary bone existed in man as well as in
brutes. But not a word in this essay gives the remotest hint of his
having then possessed the idea of the vertebral analogies of the skull.
In 1820, in his Morphologie,
he first publicly stated that thirty years before the date of that
publication he had discovered the secret relationship between the
vertebrae and the bones of the head, and that he had always continued
to meditate on this subject. The circumstances under which the poet, in
1820, narrates having become inspired with the original idea are
suspiciously analogous to those described by Oken in 1807, as producing
the same effect on his mind. A bleached skull is accidentally
discovered in both instances: in Oken's it was that of a deer in the
Harz forest; in Goethe's it was that of a sheep picked up on the shores
of the Lido, at Venice. It may be assumed that Oken when a Privatdozent at
Göttingen in 1806 knew nothing of this unpublished idea or
discovery of Goethe, and that Goethe first became aware that Oken had
the idea of the vertebral relations of the skull when he listened to
the introductory discourse in which the young professor, invited by the
poet to Jena, selected this very idea for its subject. It is incredible
that Oken, had he adopted the idea from Goethe, or been aware of an
anticipation by him, should have omitted to acknowledge the
source -- should not rather have eagerly embraced so appropriate an
opportunity of doing graceful homage to the originality and genius of
his patron. In 1832, Oken was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. |