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Hermann Wilhelm Göring (or Goering; 12 January 1893 – 15 October 1946) was a German politician, military leader, and a leading member of the Nazi Party. He was a veteran of the First World War as an ace fighter pilot, and a recipient of the coveted Pour le Mérite, also known as "The Blue Max". He was the last commander of Jagdgeschwader 1, the fighter wing once led by Manfred von Richthofen, "The Red Baron". In 1935 Göring was appointed Commander - in - Chief of the Luftwaffe (German: Air Force), a position he was to hold until the final days of the Second World War. By mid 1940, Göring was at the peak of his power and influence. Adolf Hitler had promoted him to the rank of Reichsmarschall,
making Göring senior to all other Wehrmacht commanders, and in
1941 Hitler designated him as his successor and deputy in all his
offices. By 1942, with the German war effort stumbling on both fronts,
Göring's standing with Hitler was very greatly reduced.
Göring largely withdrew from the military and political scene to
enjoy the pleasures of life as a wealthy and powerful man. After the
Second World War, Göring was convicted of war crimes and crimes against humanity at the Nuremberg Trials. He was sentenced to death by hanging, but committed suicide by cyanide ingestion the night before he was due to be hanged. Göring was born on 12 January 1893 at the Marienbad sanatorium in Rosenheim, Bavaria. His father Heinrich Ernst Göring (31 October 1839 – 7 December 1913) had been the first Governor - General of the German protectorate of South West Africa (modern day Namibia) as
well as being a former cavalry officer and member of the German
consular service. Göring had among his paternal ancestors Eberle / Eberlin, a Swiss - German family of high bourgeoisie. Göring was a relative of such Eberle / Eberlin descendants as the German aviation pioneer Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin;
German romantic nationalist Hermann Grimm (1828 – 1901), an author of the
concept of the German hero as a mover of history, whom the Nazis
claimed as one of their ideological forerunners; the industrialist
family Merck, the owners of the pharmaceutical giant Merck; German Baroness Gertrud von Le Fort,
one of the world's major Catholic writers and poets of the 20th
century, whose works were largely inspired by her revulsion against Nazism; and Carl J. Burckhardt, Swiss diplomat, historian, and President of the International Red Cross. In a historical coincidence, Göring was related via the Eberle / Eberlin line to Jacob Burckhardt (1818 – 1897),
a great Swiss scholar of art and culture who was a major political and
social thinker as well an opponent of nationalism and militarism, who
rejected German claims of cultural and intellectual superiority and
predicted a cataclysmic 20th century in which violent demagogues, whom
he called "terrible simplifiers", would play central roles. Göring's mother Franziska "Fanny" Tiefenbrunn (1859 – 15 July 1923) came from a Bavarian peasant family. The marriage of a gentleman to a lower class woman occurred only because Heinrich Ernst Göring was a widower. Hermann Göring was one of five children; his brothers were Albert Göring and Karl Göring, and his sisters were Olga Therese Sophia Göring and Paula Elisabeth Rosa Göring,
the last of whom were from his father's first marriage. Although
antisemitism had become rampant in Germany at that time, his parents
were not antisemitic. Hermann Göring's elder brother, Karl, emigrated to the United States. Karl's son, Werner G. Göring, became a Captain in the United States Army Air Forces opposing his uncle's Luftwaffe during the Second World War.
He participated in bombing runs over Germany. Göring's younger
brother Albert Göring was opposed to the Nazi regime and helped Jews and dissidents in Germany during the Nazi era,much like Oskar Schindler. In one instance, Albert helped Hermann himself by intervening on behalf of one of his wife’s film colleagues, Henny Porten.
Henny, an erstwhile sweetheart of German cinema, found herself
professionally ostracised after she refused to divorce her Jewish
husband, Dr. William von Kaufman. After meeting Henny in a Hamburg
hotel and learning of her predicament, Emmy Göring pleaded with
Hermann to call his younger brother Albert, who was, at the time, the
technical director of Tobis - Sascha Filmindustrie AG in Vienna. Hermann
made the call, and Albert duly arranged Henny a film contract in
Vienna, ensuring her a livelihood. Göring's other nephew, Hans - Joachim Göring, was a pilot in the Luftwaffe with III. / Zerstörergeschwader 76, flying the Messerschmitt Bf 110. Hans - Joachim was killed in action on 11 July 1940, when his Bf 110 was shot down by Hawker Hurricanes of No. 78 Squadron RAF. His aircraft crashed into Portland Harbour, Dorset, England.
Göring later claimed his given name was chosen to honor the
Arminius who defeated the Roman legions at Teutoburg Forest. However the name was possibly to honor his godfather, a Christian of Jewish descent born
Hermann Epenstein. Epenstein, whose father was an army surgeon in
Berlin, became a wealthy physician and businessman and a major if not
paternal influence on Göring's childhood. Hermann's father held
diplomatic posts in Africa and in Haiti,
climates considered too harsh for a young European child. This resulted
in lengthy separation from his parents, and much of Hermann's very
early childhood was spent with governesses and with distant relatives.
Heinrich Göring retired circa 1898, and had to support his large
family solely on his civil service pension. Thus for financial reasons
the Görings became permanent house guests of their longtime
friend, Göring's probable namesake. Epenstein had acquired a minor
title (through service and donation to the Crown) and was now Hermann, Ritter von Epenstein. Von Epenstein purchased two largely dilapidated castles, Burg Veldenstein in Bavaria and Burg Mauterndorf near Salzburg,
Austria, whose very expensive restorations were ongoing by the time of
Hermann Göring's birth. Both castles were to be residences of the
Göring family, their official "caretakers" until 1913. Both
castles were also ultimately to be Hermann's property. According
to some biographers of both Hermann Göring and his younger brother
Albert Göring, soon after the family took residence in his
castles, von Epenstein began an adulterous relationship with Frau
Göring and
may in fact have been Albert's father. (Albert's physical resemblance
to von Epenstein was noted even during his childhood and is evident in
photographs.) Whatever the nature of von Epenstein's relationship with
his mother, the young Hermann Göring enjoyed a close relationship
with his godfather. Göring
was initially unaware of von Epenstein's Jewish ancestry. He was
enrolled in a prestigious Austrian boarding school, where his tuition
was paid by von Epenstein. Then he wrote an essay in praise of his
godfather and was mocked by the school's antisemitic headmaster for
professing such admiration for a Jew. Göring denied the
allegation, but was then presented with proof in the "Semi - Gotha", a book which catalogued German speaking nobility of insufficient status to be listed in the Almanach de Gotha.
(Von Epenstein had bought his title and castles, and so was relegated
to the lesser reference.) Göring remained steadfast in his
devotion to his family's friend and patron so adamantly that he left
the school and used what money he had to purchase a train ticket home.
The action seems to have tightened the already considerable bond
between godfather and godson. Relations
between the Göring family and von Epenstein became far more formal
during Göring's adolescence (causing Mosley and other biographers
to speculate that perhaps the theorized affair ended naturally or that
the elderly Heinrich discovered he was a cuckold and threatened its
exposure). By the time of Heinrich Göring's death, the family no
longer lived in a residence supplied by von Epenstein, or seemed to
have much contact at all with him. The family's comfortable
circumstances indicate the Ritter may have continued to support them
financially. Late in his life, Ritter von Epenstein married Lily, a
singer who was half his age. He bequeathed her his estate in his will,
but requested that she in turn bequeath the castles at Mauterndorf and
Veldenstein to his godson Hermann upon her own death. Göring was sent to boarding school at Ansbach, Franconia, and then attended the cadet institutes at Karlsruhe and the military college at Berlin Lichterfelde. Göring was commissioned in the Prussian army on 22 June 1912 in the Prinz Wilhelm Regiment (112th Infantry), headquartered at Mulhouse as part of the 29th Division of the Imperial German Army. During the first year of World War I, Göring served with an infantry regiment in the Vosges region. He was hospitalized with rheumatism resulting from the damp of trench warfare. While he was recovering, his friend Bruno Loerzer convinced him to transfer to the Luftstreitkräfte ("air
combat force") of the German army. Göring's transfer request was
turned down. But later that year Göring flew as Loerzer's observer
in Feldfliegerabteilung 25
(FFA 25) - Göring had informally transferred himself. He was
detected and sentenced to three weeks' confinement to barracks. The
sentence was never carried out: by the time it was imposed
Göring's association with Loerzer had been regularized. They were
assigned as a team to FFA 25 in the Crown Prince's Fifth Army – "though it seems that they had to steal a plane in order to qualify." They flew reconnaissance and bombing missions for which the Crown Prince invested both Göring and Loerzer with the Iron Cross, first class. On
completing his pilot's training course he was posted back to FFA 2 in
October 1915. Göring had already claimed two air victories as an Observer (one unconfirmed). He gained another flying a Fokker E.III single seater scout in March 1916. In October 1916 he was posted to Jagdstaffel 5, but was wounded in action in November. In February 1917 he joined Jagdstaffel 26. He now scored steadily until in May 1917 he got his first command, Jasta 27. Serving with Jastas 5, 26 and 27, he claimed 21 air victories. Besides the Iron Cross, he was awarded the Zaehring Lion with swords, the Friedrich Order and the House Order of Hohenzollern with swords, third class, and finally in May 1918, the coveted Pour le Mérite. On 7 July 1918, after the death of Wilhelm Reinhard, the successor of The Red Baron, he was made commander of the famed "Flying Circus", Jagdgeschwader 1. In June 1917, after a lengthy dogfight, Göring shot down Australian pilot Frank Slee. The battle is recounted in The Rise and Fall of Hermann Göring.
Göring landed and met the Australian, and presented Slee with his
Iron Cross. Years after, Slee gave Göring's Iron Cross to a
friend, who later died on the beach during the Normandy Landings. Also during the war Göring had through his generous treatment made a friend of his prisoner of war Captain Frank Beaumont, a Royal Flying Corps pilot.
"It was part of Goering's creed to admire a good enemy, and he did his
best to keep Captain Beaumont from being taken over by the Army." Göring finished the war with twenty-two confirmed kills. Because of his arrogance, Göring's appointment as commander of Jagdgeschwader 1 had not been well received. When
demobilized during the first weeks of November 1918, Göring and
his officers spent most of their time in the Stiftskeller, the best
restaurant and drinking place in Aschaffenburg. Yet he was the only veteran of Jagdgeschwader 1 never invited to post-war reunions. Göring
was genuinely surprised (at least by his own account) at Germany's
defeat in the First World War. He felt personally violated by the
surrender, the Kaiser's abdication, the humiliating terms, and the
supposed treachery of the post-war German politicians who had "goaded
the people [to uprising] [and] who [had] stabbed our glorious Army in the back [thinking] of nothing but of attaining power and of enriching themselves at the expense of the people." Ordered
to surrender the planes of his squadron to the Allies in December 1918,
Göring and his fellow pilots intentionally wrecked the planes on
landing. This action paralleled the scuttling of
surrendered ships. Typical for the political climate of the day, he was
not arrested or even officially reprimanded for his action. He remained in flying after the war, worked briefly at Fokker, tried "barnstorming", and in 1921 he joined Svenska Lufttrafik, a Swedish airline. He was also listed on the officer rolls of the Reichswehr, the post World War I peacetime army of Germany, and by 1933 had risen to the rank of Generalmajor. He was made a Generalleutnant in 1935 and then a General in the Luftwaffe upon its founding later that year. Göring
as a veteran pilot was often hired to fly businessmen and others on
private aircraft. He worked in Denmark and Sweden as a commercial pilot. One wintry evening he was hired by Count Eric von Rosen to fly him to his castle from Stockholm. Invited to spend the night there, it may have been here that Göring first saw the swastika emblem, a family badge which was set in the chimney piece around the roaring fire. This
was also the first time Göring saw his future wife. A great
staircase led down into the hall opposite the fireplace. As Göring
looked up he saw a woman coming down the staircase as if toward him. He
thought she was very beautiful. The count introduced his sister - in - law
Baroness Carin von Kantzow (née Freiin von Fock, 1888 – 1931) to the 27 year old Göring. Carin
was a tall, maternal, unhappy, sentimental woman five years
Göring's senior, estranged from her husband and in delicate
health. Göring was immediately smitten with her. Carin's eldest
sister and biographer claimed that it was love at first sight. Carin
was carefully looked after by her parents as well as by Count and
Countess von Rosen. She was also married and had an eight year old son
Thomas to whom she was devoted. No romance other than one of courtly love was possible at this point. Carin divorced her estranged husband, Niels Gustav von Kantzow, in December 1922. She married Göring on 3 January 1923 in
Stockholm.
Von Kantzow behaved generously. He provided a financial settlement
which enabled Carin and Göring to set up their first home together
in Germany. It was a hunting lodge at Hochkreuth in the Bavarian Alps, near Bayrischzell, some 50 miles from Munich. Göring joined the Nazi Party in 1922 and took over leadership of the Sturmabteilung (SA) as the Oberste SA - Führer. After stepping down as SA Commander, he was appointed an SA - Gruppenführer (Lieutenant
General) and held this rank on the SA rolls until 1945. Hitler later recalled his early association with Göring thus: At this time Carin, who liked Hitler, often played hostess to meetings of leading Nazis including her husband, Hitler, Hess, Rosenberg and Röhm. Göring was with Hitler in the Beer Hall Putsch in
Munich on 9 November 1923. He marched beside Hitler at the head of the
SA. When the Bavarian police broke up the march with gunfire,
Göring was seriously wounded in the groin. Although he was stricken with pneumonia,
Carin arranged for Göring to be spirited away to Austria.
Göring was in no way fit to travel and the journey may have
aggravated his condition, although he did avoid arrest. Göring was
X-rayed and operated on in the hospital at Innsbruck. Carin wrote to her mother from Göring's bedside on 8 December 1923
describing his terrible pain: "... in spite of being dosed with morphine every day, his pain stays just as bad as ever." This was the beginning of his morphine addiction, which would last until his imprisonment at Nuremberg. Meanwhile in Munich the authorities declared Göring a wanted man. The Görings, acutely short of funds and reliant on the good will of Nazi sympathizers abroad, moved from Austria to Venice, then in May 1924 to Rome via Florence and Siena. Göring met Benito Mussolini in Rome. Mussolini expressed some interest in meeting Hitler, by then in prison, on his release. Personal
problems, however, continued to multiply. Göring's mother had died
in 1923. By 1925 it was Carin's mother who was ill. The Görings,
with difficulty, raised the money for a journey in spring 1925 to
Sweden via Austria, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Danzig.
Göring had become a violent morphine addict and Carin's family
were shocked by his deterioration when they saw him. Carin, herself an epileptic,
had to let the doctors and police take full charge of Göring. He
was certified a dangerous drug addict and placed in the violent ward of Långbro asylum on 1 September 1925. Biographer Roger Manvell quoted
a Stockholm psychiatrist who had seen him before he was committed to
Långbro: "Göring was very violent and had to be placed in a straitjacket but was not insane." The
1925 psychiatrist's reports claimed Göring to be weak of
character, a hysteric and unstable personality, sentimental yet
callous, violent when afraid and a person whose bravado hid a basic
lack of moral courage. "Like many men capable of great acts of physical
courage which verge quite often on desperation, he lacked the finer
kind of courage in the conduct of his life which was needed when
serious difficulties overcame him." At
the time of Göring's detention all doctors' reports in Sweden were
matters of public record. In 1925, Carin sued for custody of her son.
Niels von Kantzow, her ex-husband, used a doctor's report on Carin and
Göring as evidence to show that neither of them was fit to look
after the boy, and so von Kantzow kept custody. The reports were also
used by political opponents in Germany. Carin Göring died of heart failure on 17 October 1931. Marinus van der Lubbe, an ex-Communist radical, was arrested on the scene and claimed sole responsibility for the Reichstag fire. But many observers believed that the Nazis set the fire to justify the subsequent crackdown. Göring in particular was suspected: he was first on the scene, and both Hitler and Goebbels were apparently surprised by the news. At Nuremberg, General Franz Haldertestified that Göring admitted responsibility: Göring
in his own Nuremberg testimony denied this story. It remains unclear
whether Göring was responsible for the fire. The following is a
transcript excerpt from the Nuremberg Trials: GOERING:
This conversation did not take place and I request that I be confronted
with Herr Halder. First of all I want to emphasize that what is written
here is utter nonsense. It says, "The only one who really knows the
Reichstag is I." The Reichstag was known to every representative in the
Reichstag. The fire took place only in the general assembly room, and
many hundreds or thousands of people knew this room as well as I did. A
statement of this type is utter nonsense. How Herr Halder came to make
that statement I do not know. Apparently that bad memory, which also
let him down in military matters, is the only explanation. During the early 1930s Göring was often in the company of Emmy Sonnemann (1893 – 1973), an actress from Hamburg. He proposed to her in Weimar in
February 1935. The wedding took place on 10 April 1935 in Berlin and
was celebrated like the marriage of an emperor. They had a daughter,
Edda Göring (born 2 June 1938) who was reportedly named after Countess Edda Ciano, eldest child of Benito Mussolini, although other sources say she was named after a friend of her mother. Edda's Godfather was Adolf Hitler. When Hitler was named chancellor of Germany in January 1933, Göring was appointed as minister without portfolio. He was one of only two other Nazis named to the Cabinet (the other being Wilhelm Frick) even though the Nazis were the largest party in the Reichstag and nominally the senior partner in the Nazi - DNVP coalition.
However, in a little noticed development, he was named Interior
Minister of Prussia — a move which gave him command of the largest state
police force in Germany. Soon after taking office, he began filling the
political and intelligence units of the Prussian police with Nazis. On
26 April 1933, he formally detached these units from the regular
Prussian police and reorganized them under his command as the Gestapo, a secret state police intended to serve the Nazi cause. Göring was one of the key figures in the process of Gleichschaltung ("forcible coordination") that established the Nazi dictatorship. For example, in 1933, Göring banned all Roman Catholic newspapers
in Germany, not only to suppress resistance to National Socialism but
also to deprive the population of alternative forms of association and
means of political communication. In the Nazi regime's early years, Göring served as minister in various key positions at both the Reich (German
national) level and other levels as required. For example, in the state
of Prussia, Göring was responsible for the economy as well as
re-armament. On
20 April 1934, Göring and Himmler agreed to put aside their
differences (largely because of mutual hatred and growing dread of the
SA or Sturmabteilung) and Göring transferred full authority over
the Gestapo to Himmler, who was also named chief of all German police
forces outside Prussia. With the Gestapo under their control, Himmler and Heydrich plotted (with Göring) to use it with the SS to crush the SA. Göring retained Special Police Battalion Wecke, which he converted to a paramilitary unit attached to the Landespolizei (State Police), Landespolizeigruppe General Göring. This formation participated in the Night of the Long Knives, when the SA leaders were purged. Göring was head of the Forschungsamt (FA), which secretly monitored telephone and radio communications, The FA was connected to the SS, the SD, and Abwehr intelligence services. In 1936, he became Plenipotentiary of the Four Year Plan for German rearmament, where he effectively took control of the economy – as economics minister Hjalmar Schacht became increasingly reluctant to pursue rapid rearmament and eventually resigned. The vast steel plant Reichswerke Hermann Göring was
named after him. He gained great influence with Hitler (who placed a
high value on rearmament). He never seemed to accept the Hitler Myth quite as much as Goebbels and Himmler, but remained loyal nevertheless. In 1938, Göring forced out the War Minister, Field Marshal von Blomberg, and the Army commander, General von Fritsch.
They had welcomed Hitler's accession in 1933, but then annoyed him by
criticising his plans for expansionist wars. Göring, who had been
best man at Blomberg's recent wedding to a 26 year old typist,
discovered that the young woman was a former prostitute, and
blackmailed him into resigning. Fritsch was accused of homosexual
activity and, though completely innocent, resigned in shock and
disgust. He was later exonerated by a "court of honor" presided over by
Göring. Also in 1938, Göring played a key role in the Anschluss (annexation) of Austria. At the height of the crisis, Göring spoke on the telephone to Austrian Chancellor Schuschnigg.
Göring announced Germany's intent to march into Austria, and
threatened war and the destruction of Austria if there was any
resistance. Schuschnigg collapsed, and the German army marched into
Austria without resistance. The
confiscation of Jewish property gave Göring great opportunities to
amass a personal fortune. Some properties he seized himself, or
acquired for a nominal price. In other cases, he collected bribes for
allowing others to steal Jewish property. He also took kickbacks from
industrialists for favourable decisions as Four Year Plan director, and
money for supplying arms to the Spanish Republicans in the Spanish Civil War via Pyrkal in Greece (although Germany was supporting Franco and the Nationalists). Göring also "collected" several other offices, such as Reichsforst- und Jägermeister (Reich Master of the Forest and Hunt), for which he received high government salaries. In 1933 Göring acquired a vast estate in the Schorfheide Forest in Brandenburg, 40 km northeast of Berlin, and built his great manor house there. It was named Carinhall in memory of his first wife Carin. He exulted in aristocratic trappings, such as a coat of arms,
and ceremonial swords and daggers, such as the Wedding Sword (an
oversized broadsword with elaborate gold hilts presented to Göring
at his 1935 wedding to Emmy). He also owned many uniforms and jewelry. Göring was also noted for his patronage of music, especially opera. He entertained frequently and lavishly. Most infamously, he collected art, looting from numerous museums (some in Germany itself), stealing from
Jewish collectors, or buying for grossly discounted prices in occupied countries. When Göring was promoted to the unique rank of Reichsmarschall, he designed an elaborate personal flag for himself. The design included a German eagle, swastika, and crossed marshal's batons on one side, and on the other the Großkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ("Grand Cross of the Iron Cross") between four Luftwaffe eagles. He had the
flag carried by a personal standard - bearer at all public occasions. Göring was known for his extravagant tastes and garish clothing. Hans - Ulrich Rudel, the top Stuka pilot
of the war, recalled twice meeting Göring dressed in outlandish
costumes: first, a medieval hunting costume, practicing archery with his doctor, and second, dressed in a russettoga fastened with a golden clasp, smoking an abnormally large pipe. Italian Foreign Minister Ciano once noted Göring wearing a fur coat looking like what "a high grade prostitute wears to the opera." His personal car, dubbed "The Blue Goose", was an aviation blue Mercedes 540K Special Cabriolet.
It had luxurious features, as well as special additions, including
bullet proof glass and bomb resistant armor for protection, and
modifications to allow him to fit his girth behind the wheel. Though he liked to be called "der Eiserne"
(the Iron Man), the once dashing and muscular fighter pilot had become
corpulent. He was however one of the few Nazi leaders who did not take
offence at hearing jokes about himself, "no matter how rude," taking
them as a sign of his popularity. Germans joked about his ego, saying
that he would wear an admiral's uniform to take a bath, and his
obesity, joking that "he sits down on his stomach."
Göring
was certainly an ardent Nazi and utterly loyal to Hitler. But his
preferences in foreign policy were different. The German diplomatic
historian Klaus Hildebrand in
his study of German foreign policy in the Nazi era noted that besides
Hitler's foreign policy program that there were three rival programs
supported by factions in the Nazi Party, whom Hildebrand dubbed the
agrarians, the revolutionary socialists, and the Wilhelmine
Imperialists. Göring
was the most prominent of the Wilhelmine Imperialists. This group
wanted to restore the German frontiers of 1914, regain the pre 1914 overseas empire, and make Eastern Europe Germany's exclusive sphere of influence. This was a much more limited set of goals than Hitler's dream of Lebensraum to
be carved out with merciless racial wars. By contrast, Göring and
the Wilhelmine Imperialist faction were more guided by traditional Machtpolitik in their foreign policy conceptions. Furthermore,
they expected to achieve their goals within the established
international order. While not rejecting war as an option, they
preferred diplomacy and sought political domination in eastern Europe
rather than the military conquests envisioned by Hitler. They also
rejected Hitler's mystical vision of war as a necessary ordeal for the
nation, and of perpetual war as desirable. Göring himself feared
that a major war might interfere with his luxurious lifestyle.
Göring's advocacy of this policy led to his temporary exclusion by
Hitler for a time in 1938 – 39 from foreign policy decisions.
Göring's unwillingness to offer a major challenge to Hitler
prevented him from offering any serious resistance to Hitler's
policies, and the Wilhelmine Imperialists had no real influence. Göring
had some private doubts about the wisdom of Hitler’s policies attacking
Poland, which he felt would cause a world war, and was anxious to see a
compromise solution. This was especially the case as the Forschungsamt (FA),
Göring's private intelligence agency, had broken the codes the
British Embassy in Berlin used to communicate with London. The FA's
work showed that British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain was
determined to go to war if Germany invaded Poland in 1939. This
directly contradicted the advice given to Hitler by Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop (a
man whom Göring loathed at the best of times) that Chamberlain
would not honor the “guarantee” he had given Poland in March 1939 if
Germany attacked that country. In
the summer of 1939, Göring and the rest of the Wilhelmine
Imperialists made a last ditch effort to assert their foreign policy
program. Göring was involved in desperate attempts to avert a war
by using various amateur diplomats, such as his deputy Helmuth
Wohltat at the Four Year Plan organization, British civil servant Sir Horace Wilson, newspaper proprietor Lord Kemsley, and would be peace makers like Swedish businessmen Axel Wenner - Gren and Birger Dahlerus, who served as couriers between Göring and various British officials. All
of these efforts came to naught because Hitler (who much preferred
Ribbentrop’s assessment of Britain to Göring's) would not be
deterred from attacking Poland in 1939, and the Wilhelmine Imperialists
were unwilling and unable to challenge Hitler despite their
reservations about his foreign policy. Göring was responsible for the Nuremberg laws and for charging Jews with a billion dollar fine for Kristallnacht,
which he never denied at Nuremberg trial. However, his role in and
awareness of the extermination of the Jews is much more controversial. Göring
claimed at Nuremberg that he was not antisemitic, and it is generally
accepted that the antisemitism of Goebbels and Himmler was far stronger
than that of Göring, who was more cynical than ideological in all
of his attitudes. He occasionally intervened to shield individual Jews
from harm, sometimes in exchange for a bribe, sometimes after a request
from his wife Emmy or his anti Nazi brother
Albert. Göring despised Himmler and he often sparred with Goebbels
who was in favor of more radical measures against the Jews. However,
some of the quotes provided at the Nuremberg trial show his apparent
antisemitic side, though much milder than that of Goebbels or Himmler,
some apparently said as ironic retorts to Goebbels. Despite his
sporadic actions to help individuals, Göring was deemed complicit
in the Holocaust: he was the highest figure in the Nazi hierarchy to
issue a written order for the "complete solution of the Jewish
Question", as he issued a memo to Reinhard Heydrich to
organize the practical details. Göring, who issued this memo in
place of Hitler, which he occasionally did, wrote in the memo to
"submit to me as soon as possible a general plan of the administrative,
financial and material measures necessary for carrying out the desired
final solution of the Jewish question." This was in July 1941, many
months before, according to most historians, the decision to
exterminate Jews was taken. Göring, who at Nuremberg trial
unrepentantly took responsibility for his actions, as opposed to most
other defendants who blamed Hitler, maintained to his death that this
meant relocation of Jews, and that he did not know of the subsequent
extermination. Following this transfer of the Jewish question to
Heydrich and Himmler, at the Wannsee Conference in early 1942, the Holocaust was planned with Heydrich as the most senior officer present, reporting directly to Himmler. When
the Nazis took power, Göring was Minister of Civil Air Transport,
which was a screen for the build-up of German military aviation,
prohibited by the Treaty of Versailles. When Hitler repudiated Versailles, in 1935, the Luftwaffe was unveiled, with Göring as Minister and Oberbefehlshaber (Supreme Commander). In 1938, he became the first Generalfeldmarschall (Field Marshal) of the Luftwaffe;
this promotion also made him the highest ranking officer in Germany.
Göring directed the rapid creation of this new branch of service.
Within a few years, Germany produced large numbers of the world's most
advanced military aircraft. In
1936, Göring at Hitler's direction sent several hundred aircraft
along with several thousand air and ground crew, to assist the
Nationalists in the Spanish Civil War. This became known as the Condor Legion. By 1939 the Luftwaffe was one of the most advanced and powerful air forces in the world. Unusually, the Luftwaffe also included its own ground troops, which became in a sense, Göring's private army. German Fallschirmjäger (parachute and glider) troops were organised as part of the Luftwaffe, not as part of the Army. Subject to rigorous training, they came to be regarded as elite troops, much the same as the paratroopers of the British and American armies. Fallschirmjäger units were awarded 134 Knight's Cross of the Iron Crosses between the years 1940 – 1945. In addition to the Fallschirmjäger, there were also the Luftwaffe Field Divisions,
which were organised as basic infantry units but were led by officers
with little training for ground combat, and generally performed badly
as combat troops as a result. The Hermann Göring Panzer Division was also raised and served with distinction in the Italian campaign. Göring
was skeptical of Hitler's war plans. He believed Germany was not
prepared for a new conflict and, in particular, that his Luftwaffe was not yet ready to beat the British Royal Air Force (RAF). However,
once Hitler decided on war, Göring supported him completely. On 1
September 1939, the first day of the war, Hitler spoke to the
Reichstag. In this speech he designated Göring as his successor
"if anything should befall me." Initially, decisive German victories followed quickly one after the other. The Luftwaffe destroyed the Polish Air Force within two weeks. The Fallschirmjäger seized key airfields in Norway and captured Fort Eben - Emael in Belgium. German air-to-ground attacks served as the "flying artillery" of the Panzer troops in the blitzkrieg of France. "Leave it to my Luftwaffe" became Göring's perpetual gloat. After the defeat of France, Hitler awarded Göring the Grand Cross of the Iron Cross for his successful leadership. By a decree on 19 July 1940, Hitler promoted Göring to the rank of Reichsmarschall des Grossdeutschen Reiches (Reich Marshal of the Greater German Reich), a special rank which made him senior to all other Army and Luftwaffe Field Marshals. It also reinforced his status as Hitler's chosen successor. Göring's political and military careers were at their peak. Göring had already received the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross on 30 September 1939 as Commander in Chief of the Luftwaffe. Göring promised Hitler that the Luftwaffe would
quickly destroy the RAF, or break British morale with devastating air
raids. He personally directed the first attacks on Britain from his
private luxury train. But the Luftwaffe failed to gain control of the skies in the Battle of Britain. This was Hitler's first defeat. Britain withstood the worst Luftwaffe bombers could do for the eight months of "the Blitz" without being cowed by circumstances. However, the damage inflicted on British cities largely maintained Göring's prestige. The Luftwaffe heavily bombed Belgrade in April 1941, and Fallschirmjäger captured Crete from the British Army in May 1941. If
Göring had been skeptical about war against Britain and France, he
was absolutely certain that a new campaign against the Soviet Union was doomed to defeat. After trying, completely in vain, to convince Hitler to give up Operation Barbarossa,
he embraced the campaign. Hitler still relied on him completely. On 29
June, Hitler composed a special 'testament', which was kept secret till
the end of the war. This formally designated Göring as "my deputy
in all my offices" if Hitler was unable to function as dictator of
Germany, and his successor if he died. Ironically, Göring did not
know the contents of this testament, which was marked "To be opened
only by the Reichsmarschall", until after leaving Berlin in April 1945
for Berchtesgaden, where it had been kept. The Luftwaffe shared
in the initial victories in the east, destroying thousands of Soviet
aircraft. But as Soviet resistance grew and the weather turned bad, the Luftwaffe became overstretched and exhausted. Göring by this time had lost interest in administering the Luftwaffe. That duty was left to others like Udet and Jeschonnek.
Aircraft production lagged and Udet killed himself in November 1941.
Yet Göring persisted in outlandish promises. When the Soviets
surrounded a German army in Stalingrad in 1942, Göring encouraged Hitler to fight for the city rather than retreat. He asserted that the Luftwaffe would
deliver 500 tons per day of supplies to the trapped force. In fact no
more than 100 tons were ever delivered in a day, and usually much less.
While Göring's men struggled to fly in the savage Russian winter,
Göring celebrated his 50th birthday. Göring was in charge of exploiting the vast industrial resources captured during the war, particularly in the Soviet Union.
This proved to be an almost total failure, and little of the available
potential was effectively harnessed for the service of the German
military machine. On 9 August 1939, Göring boasted "The Ruhr will
not be subjected to a single bomb. If an enemy bomber reaches the Ruhr,
my name is not Hermann Göring: you can call me Meier!" ("I want to
be called Meier if ..." is a German idiom to express that something is
impossible. Meier [in several spelling variants] is the second most
common surname in Germany.) He also said he would eat his hat. But
as early as 1940, British aircraft raided targets in Germany, debunking
Göring's assurance that the Reich would never be attacked —
the British were, throughout the war, destined to be his personal
undoing. However, the initial raids were unsuccessful in inflicting
significant damage to German infrastructure, allowing Göring to
reassure the public especially as the German air defense network
improved. However, in 1942 the British Area Bombing Directive was issued, the main workhorse aircraft of the later part of the war came into service (the Halifax and Lancaster made
up the backbone of the Command, and had a longer range, higher speed
and much greater bomb load than the earlier aircraft; the classic
aircraft of the Pathfinders, the de Havilland Mosquito, also made its appearance) and America began transferring long range strategic bombers to England for further air raids. By 1942, hundreds of Allied bombers were bombing Germany; occasionally as many as a thousand. The Luftwaffe responded with night fighters and anti - aircraft guns, but entire cities such as Cologne (Köln) and Hamburg were
destroyed anyway. Göring was still nominally in charge, but in
practice he had little to do with operations. When Göring visited
the devastated cities, civilians called out "Hello, Mr. Meier. How's
your hat?" By the end of the war, Berlin's air raid sirens were
bitterly known to the city's residents as "Meier's trumpets", or
"Meier's hunting horns." Civilians would also call the bomber war "a
defeat in every city". The
Luftwaffe's own efforts at having a strategic bomber force had been
crippled even before the war began, from the death in 1936 of General Walter Wever, the Luftwaffe's primary
promoter for Germany to have a strategic bombing capability, and a
subsequent placement of greater value on medium bombers such as the Heinkel He 111, and Schnellbomber fast medium bombers, such as the Junkers Ju 88. The only German aircraft design of a comparable capability to Allied heavy bombers such as the B-17 to see wartime service, the troubled Heinkel He 177, had been afflicted with having to use a set of four DB 601 engines paired up into twin "power systems" as the "DB 606", partly due to its mis-assignment as a "giant Stuka"
from its beginnings, and by September 1942, Goering had roundly derided
the DB 606, and its later development, the DB 610, as monstrous
"welded - together engines" that could not be properly maintained in
service, as installed in the He 177, the one German aircraft design
that Goering is said to have despised the most during the war years. Göring's
prestige, reputation, and influence with Hitler all declined,
especially after the Stalingrad debacle. Hitler could not publicly
repudiate him without embarrassment, but contact between them largely
stopped. Göring withdrew from the military and political scene to
enjoy the pleasures of life as a wealthy and powerful man. His
reputation for extravagance made him particularly unpopular as ordinary
Germans began to suffer deprivation. In 1945, Göring fled the Berlin area with trainloads of treasures for the Nazi alpine resort in Berchtesgaden. Soon afterward, the Luftwaffe's chief of staff, Karl Koller,
arrived with unexpected news: Hitler, who had by this time conceded
that Germany had lost, had suggested that Göring would be better
suited to negotiate peace terms. To Koller, this seemed to indicate
that Hitler wanted Göring to take over the leadership of the Reich. Göring was initially unsure of what to do, largely because he did not want to give Martin Bormann,
who now controlled access to Hitler, a window to seize greater power.
He thought that if he waited he'd be accused of dereliction of duty. On
the other hand, he feared being accused of treason if he did try to
assume power. He then pulled his copy of Hitler's secret decree of 1941
from a safe. It clearly stated that Göring was not only Hitler's
designated successor, but was to act as his deputy if Hitler ever
became incapacitated. Göring, Koller, and Hans Lammers,
the state secretary of the Reich Chancellery, all agreed that Hitler
faced almost certain death by staying in Berlin to lead the defence of
the capital against the Soviets. They also agreed that by staying in
Berlin, Hitler had incapacitated himself from governing and Göring
had a clear duty to assume power as Hitler's deputy. On 23 April, as Soviet troops closed in around Berlin, Göring sent a carefully worded telegram by
radio to Hitler, asking Hitler to confirm that he was to take over the
"total leadership of the Reich." He added that if he did not hear back
from Hitler by 10 PM, he would assume Hitler was incapacitated, and
would assume leadership of the Reich. However, Bormann received the telegram before Hitler did. He portrayed it as an ultimatum to surrender power or face a coup d'état.
On 25 April, Hitler issued a telegram to Göring telling him that
he had committed "high treason" and gave him the option of resigning
all of his offices in exchange for his life. However, not long after
that, Bormann ordered the SS in Berchtesgaden to arrest Göring. In
his last will and testament, Hitler dismissed Göring from all of his offices and expelled him from the Nazi Party. Shortly
after Hitler completed his will, Bormann ordered the SS to execute
Göring, his wife, and their daughter (Hitler's own goddaughter) if
Berlin were to fall. But this order was ignored. Instead, the
Görings and their SS captors moved together, to the same Schloß Mauterndorf where
Göring had spent much of his childhood and which he had inherited
(along with Burg Veldenstein) from his godfather's widow in 1938.
(Göring had arranged for preferential treatment for the woman, and
protected her from confiscation and arrest as the widow of a wealthy
Jew.) Göring
surrendered to U.S. soldiers on 9 May 1945 in Bavaria. In November that
same year, he was put on trial in Nuremberg for war crimes. He was the
third highest ranking Nazi official tried at Nuremberg, behind Reich
President (former Admiral) Karl Dönitz and former Deputy Führer Rudolf Hess. Göring's last days were spent with Captain Gustave Gilbert, a German speaking American intelligence officer and psychologist, who had access to all the prisoners held in the Nuremberg jail. Gilbert classified Göring as having an I.Q. of 138, the same as Dönitz. Gilbert kept a journal which he later published as Nuremberg Diary. Here he describes Göring on the evening of 18 April 1946, as the trials were halted for a three day Easter recess: In taking the witness stand during his part of the trial, Göring claimed that he was not antisemitic; however, Albert Speer reported
that in the prison yard at Nuremberg, after someone made a remark about
Jewish survivors in Hungary, he had overheard Göring say, "So,
there are still some there? I thought we had knocked off all of them.
Somebody slipped up again." Despite his claims of non-involvement, he was confronted with orders he had signed for the murder of Jews and prisoners of war. Though
he defended himself vigorously, and actually appeared to be winning the
trial early on (partly by building popularity with the court audience
by making jokes and finding holes in the prosecution's case), he was
found guilty and sentenced to death by hanging. The judgment stated
that: Göring
made an appeal, offering to accept the court's death sentence if he
were shot as a soldier instead of hanged as a common criminal, but the
court refused. Defying the sentence imposed by his captors, he committed suicide with a potassium cyanide capsule the night before he was to be hanged. Göring had hidden two cyanide capsules in jars of opaque skin cream (he had dermatitis). It has been claimed that Göring befriended U.S. Army Lieutenant Jack G. Wheelis,
who was stationed at the Nuremberg Trials and helped Göring obtain
cyanide which had been hidden among Göring's personal effects when
they were confiscated by the Army. In 2005, former U.S. Army Private Herbert Lee Stivers claimed
he gave Göring "medicine" hidden inside a gift fountain pen from a
German woman the private had met and flirted with. Stivers served in the 1st Infantry Division's 26th Infantry Regiment,
who formed the honor guard for the Nuremberg Trials. Stivers claims to
have been unaware of what the "medicine" he delivered actually was
until after Göring's death. A major Göring biographer and
renowned Holocaust denier, David Irving, has dismissed this claim as
pure fabrication. Because he committed suicide, his dead body was displayed by the gallows for the witnesses of the executions. After their deaths, the bodies of Göring and the other executed Nazi leaders were cremated in the East Cemetery, Munich (Ostfriedhof). His ashes were disposed of in the Isar river in Munich. Göring spoke about war and extreme nationalism to Captain Gilbert, as recorded in Gilbert's Nuremberg Diary: The well-known quotation, and its variations, is
frequently attributed to Göring during the inter war period.
Whether or not he actually used this phrase is unclear; it did not
originate with him. The line comes from Nazi playwright Hanns Johst's play Schlageter, "Wenn ich Kultur höre ... entsichere ich meinen Browning" ("Whenever I hear of culture... I release the safety catch of my Browning"). Nor
was Göring the only Nazi official to use this phrase: Rudolf Hess
used it as well, and it was a popular cliché in Germany, often
in the form: "Wenn ich 'Kultur' höre, nehme ich meine Pistole."
("Whenever I hear 'culture', I take my pistol" or "When I hear of
culture, I pick up my gun.") |