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Giovanni Gentile (May 30, 1875 – April 15, 1944) was an Italian neo-Hegelian Idealist philosopher, a peer of Benedetto Croce. He described himself as 'the philosopher of Fascism', and ghostwrote A Doctrine of Fascism (1932) for Benito Mussolini. He also devised his own system of philosophy, Actual Idealism. Giovanni Gentile was born in Castelvetrano, Sicily. He was inspired by Italian intellectuals such as Mazzini, Rosmini, Gioberti, and Spaventa from whom he borrowed the idea of autoctisi, “self-construction”, but also was strongly influenced by the German idealist and materialist schools of thought — namely Karl Marx, Hegel, and Fichte with whom he shared the ideal of creating a Wissenschaftslehre, theory for a structure of knowledge that makes no assumptions. Friedrich Nietzsche, too, influenced him, as seen in an analogy between Nietzsche's Übermensch and Gentile's Uomo Fascista. Gentile was the Chairman of the Department of Philosophy at Palermo University (1907 – 14), and later at Pisa. In 1923, he was the Minister of Public Education for the government of Benito Mussolini, as which he effected the “Riforma Gentile” — a great and deep reformation of the secondary school system, that had a long lasting influence upon Italian education. He formulated the important works The Theory of Mind as Pure Act (1916) and Logic as Theory of Knowledge (1917), with which he devised Actual Idealism, a unified metaphysical system reinforcing his sentiments that philosophy isolated from life, and life isolated from philosophy, are but two identical modes of backward cultural bankruptcy. For Gentile, that theory realised how philosophy could directly influence, mould, and penetrate life: philosophy could govern life. His
philosophic system viewed thought as all-embracing: no-one could
actually leave his or her sphere of thought, nor exceed his or her
thought. Reality was
unthinkable, except in relation to the activity by means of which it
becomes thinkable, positing that as a unity — held in the active
subject and the discrete abstract phenomena that
reality comprehends — wherein each phenomenon, when truly realised, was
centered within that unity; therefore, it was innately spiritual, transcendent, and immanent, to all possible things in contact with the unity. Gentile used that philosophic frame
to systematize every item of interest that now was subject to the rule
of absolute self - identification — thus rendering as correct every
consequence of the hypothesis. The resultant philosophy can be interpreted as an idealist foundation for Legal Naturalism. Giovanni Gentile was described by Mussolini, and by himself, as 'the philosopher of Fascism'; moreover, he was the ghostwriter of the essay A Doctrine of Fascism (1932), by Benito Mussolini. It was first published in 1932, in the Italian Encyclopedia, (edited by Gentile), wherein he described the traits characteristic of Italian Fascism at the time: compulsory state corporatism, Philosopher Kings, the abolition of the parliamentary system, and autarky. He also wrote the Manifesto of the Italian Fascist Intellectuals, signed by many writers and intellectuals, including Luigi Pirandello. Besides
being minister of education, later, he was integral to the Fascist
Grand Council of the Italian Fascist régime, and remained loyal
to Mussolini after the establishment of the Republic of Salò, and accepted a government appointment. In 1944, a group of anti - fascist partisans, led by Bruno Fanciullacci, killed ‘the philospher of Fascism’ as he returned from the Prefecture in Florence, where he had argued for the release of anti - fascist intellectuals. In the event, Giovanni Gentile had so firmly believed that the philosophic concreteness of Fascism possessed a dialectical intelligence that surpassed intellectual scrutiny, that he presumed that
intellectual opposition would only reinforce, and thus give credence
to, the truth of the superiority of Fascism as a superior,
liberally - thinking polity. There are a number of developments within his thought and career which defined his philosophy. Benedetto
Croce wrote that Gentile "...holds the honor of having been the most
rigorous neo–Hegelian in the entire history of Western philosophy and
the dishonor of having been the official philosopher of Fascism in
Italy." His philosophical basis for fascism was rooted in his understanding of ontology and epistemology, in which he found vindication for the rejection of individualism, acceptance of collectivism, with the state as
the ultimate location of authority and loyalty to which the individual
found in the conception of individuality no meaning outside of the
state (which in turn justified totalitarianism). The
conceptual relationship between Gentile's Actual Idealism and his
fascism is not evident. The supposed relationship does not appear to be
one of logical deducibility. Actual Idealism does not entail a fascist
ideology in any rigorous sense. Gentile, who enjoyed fruitful
intellectual relations with Croce from 1899 and particularly during
their joint editorship of La Critica,
1903 – 22, broke philosophically and politically from Croce in the
early 1920s. Croce assesses the philosophical disagreement in Una discussione tra filosofi amici in Conversazioni Critiche, II. Ultimately,
Gentile foresaw a social order wherein opposites of all kinds were not
to be considered as existing independently from each other; that
'publicness' and 'privateness' as broad interpretations were currently false as imposed by all former kinds of Government, including capitalism and communism;
and that only the reciprocal totalitarian state of Corporative
Syndicalism, a fascist state, could defeat these problems which are
made from reifying as an external reality that which is in fact, to
Gentile, only a thinking reality. Whereas it was common in the
philosophy of the time to see the conditional subject as abstract and
the object as concrete, Gentile postulated the opposite, that the
subject is the concrete and the object is an abstraction (or rather,
that what was conventionally dubbed "subject" is in fact only
conditional object, and that the true subject is the 'act of' being or
essence of the object). Gentile
was a notable philosophical theorist of his time throughout Europe,
since having developed his 'Actual Idealism' system of Idealism, sometimes called 'Actualism.' It was especially in which his ideas put subject to the position of a transcending truth above positivism that
garnered attention; by way that all senses about the world only take
the form of ideas within one's mind in any real sense; to Gentile even
the analogy between the function & location of the physical brain
with the functions of the physical body were a consistent creation of
the mind (and not brain; which was a creation of the mind and not the
other way around). An example of Actual Idealism in Theology is
the idea that although man may have invented the concept of God, it
does not make God any less real in any sense possible as far as it is
not presupposed to exist as abstraction and except in case qualities
about what existence actually entails (i.e. being invented apart from
the thinking making it) are presupposed. Benedetto Croce objected that Gentile's "pure act" is nothing other than Schopenhauer's will. Therefore Gentile proposed a form of what he called 'absolute Immanentism'
in which the divine was the present conception of reality in the
totality of one's individual thinking as an evolving, growing and
dynamic process. Many times accused of Solipsism, Gentile maintained his philosophy to be a Humanism that
sensed the possibility of nothing beyond what was contingent; the
self's human thinking, in order to communicate as immanence is to be
human like oneself, made a cohesive empathy of the self - same, without
an external division, and therefore not modeled as objects to one's own
thinking. Gentile's
immanentist philosophy was divergent from others in that while he put
the center of existence and all spirituality in the individual, he
perceived the consequence of this to mean complete selfless immersion
and relegation to the social plane in action as being the truest
vanguard of the will of an individual so understood, when rightly and
purely expressed. This is because to Gentile social reality was not
exterior to the individual, but was a qualified extension of the
individual by the fact that it was the individual who recognized social
reality and all its implications and qualifications through no means
beyond the mind of himself. Though he may imagine he does so through
his senses, which are again only external in so far as the mind
internally apprehends them to be. This act constituting the full extent
of what represents external character, continues to be for Gentile a
product solely within the apprehension that transcends exterior being.
Doing so by virtue that such immanent apprehension is what exclusively
must be referred to when maintaining the basis of what seems external
to the individual. Gentile
maintained the need for an intelligent opposition to the
intellectualizing of systems into being, divorced from practice, which
he would classify 'abstract' and for that reason unwieldy if not
unworkable. Though this stand is cited by his terminology as "anti - intellectualism"
he attributes to it still the factor of intelligence. Meaning
'intelligence' is as it penetrates, and not as it is object, i.e. not
as it is when in the "intellectual" tense of the word. In the common
meaning of this term outside of Gentile's highly analytic interpretation
of it to his philosophy, Gentile's philosophy in fact contains all of
the criteria in regard to comporting a favorable position toward having
"intellectual" pursuits. Gentile took the stand against psychology and
psycho - analysis that one cannot abstract (i.e. make object out of)
the
source that creates its own surrounding reality, as one does by his own
philosophy, and that any empirical observations of behavioral
anthropology appear true because empiricalism always adheres to its own
laws, being a closed system it is true within its own considered
vacuum. Rather than look to the external for the source of one's
mentality, Gentile held that any colorations on what the external
first manifests as are initially created within the self, and therefore
the external is a product of one's psychology and not the other way
around. Gentile's theory may be considered an extreme form of Occam's Razor,
though it can appear to common sense to defy Occam's Razor outright by
the complex thinking involved to relate with his theory. Gentile
however deduced that common sense in considering material reality was
to him not philosophical because it was not self - critical of its
sensory presuppositions. To Gentile, making a thought category of his
theory itself defied it by turning it into object, as any such idea of
the philosophy that was not kept in subject or truly 'actual' could not
be Actual Idealism. One of his most important works is Genesi e Struttura della Società in
which he argues that the individual is an abstraction originating from
analysis of society. One of the consequences he draws is that the state
and the individual are one and the same and that their division is an
example of formal abstraction. The work was written after Mussolini had
been deposed by the Fascist Grand Council but before the proclamation of the armistice between Italy and the Allies on September 8, 1943 and the Republic of Salò on September 14, 1943. Gentile
sought to make his philosophy become the basis of Fascism in much the
same manner Marx had developed his philosophy as the basis of
Communism. However, with Gentile & with Fascism, the 'problem of
the party' existed, and existed by the fact that the Fascist party came
to be organically rather than from a tract or pre-made doctrine of
thought. This complicated the matter for Gentile as it left no
consensus to any way of thinking among Fascists, but ironically this
aspect was to Gentile's view of how a state or party doctrine should
live out its existence: with natural organic growth and
dialectical opposition intact. The fact that Mussolini gave credence to
Gentile's view points via Gentile's authorship helped with an official
consideration, even though the 'problem of the party' continued to
exist for Mussolini himself as well. Gentile
placed himself in the Marxist tradition in many respects, but he
believed that Marx's conception of the dialectic to be the fundamental
flaw of his application to system making. To Gentile, Marx made the
dialectic into external object, and therefore abstracted it by making
it part of some process that theoretically exists of outward matter
& material. The dialectic to Gentile could only be something of
human precepts, something that is an active part of human thinking.
Dialectic was to Gentile concrete subject and not abstract object.
This Gentile expounded by how humans think in forms wherein one side of
a dual opposite could not be thought of without its complement. "Upward"
wouldn't be known without "downward" and "heat" couldn't be known
without "cold", while each are opposites they are co-dependent for
either one's realization: these were creations that existed as
dialectic only in human thinking and couldn't be confirmed outside of
which, and especially could not be said to exist in a condition
external to human thought like independent matter & a world outside
of personal subjectivity or as an empirical reality when not conceived
in unity and from the standpoint of the human mind. To
Gentile, Marx externalizing the dialectic was essentially a fetishistic
mysticism. Though when viewed externally thus, it followed that Marx
could then make claims to the effect of what state or condition the
dialectic objectively existed in history, a posteriori of
where any individuals opinion was while comporting oneself to the
totalized whole of society. i.e. people themselves could by such a view
be ideologically 'backwards' and left behind from the current state of
the dialectic and not themselves be part of what is actively creating
the dialectic as-it-is. Gentile
thought this was absurd, and that there was no 'positive' independently
existing dialectical object. Rather, the dialectic was natural to the
state, as-it-is. Meaning that the interests composing the state are
composing the dialectic by their living organic process of holding
oppositional views within that state, and unified therein. It being the
mean condition of those interests as ever they exist. Even criminality,
is unified as a necessarily dialectic to be subsumed into the state and
a creation and natural outlet of the dialectic of the positive state as
ever it is. This
view justified the corporative system, wherein the individualized and
particular interests of all divergent groups were to be personably
incorporated into the state, each to be considered a bureaucratic
branch of the state itself and given official leverage. Gentile, rather
than believing the private to be swallowed synthetically within the
public as Marx would have it in his objective dialectic, believed that
public & private were a priori identified
with each other in an active & subjective dialectic: one could not
be subsumed fully into the other as they already are beforehand the
same. In such a manner each is the other after their own fashion &
from their respective, relative, and reciprocal, position. Yet both
constitute the state itself and neither are free from it, nothing ever
being truly free from it, the state existing as an eternal condition
and not an objective, abstract collection of atomistic values and facts
of the particulars about what is positively governing the people at any
given time. |