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Sir Thomas Stamford Bingley Raffles, FRS (6 July 1781 – 5 July 1826) was a British statesman, best known for his founding of the city of Singapore (now the city - state of the Republic of Singapore). He is often described as the "Father of Singapore". He was also heavily involved in the conquest of the Indonesian island of Java from Dutch and French military forces during the Napoleonic Wars and contributed to the expansion of the British Empire. He was also an amateur writer and wrote a book entitled History of Java (1817). Raffles was born on the ship Ann off the coast of Port Morant, Jamaica, to Captain Benjamin Raffles (d. June 1797) and Anne Raffles (née Lyde). His father was a Yorkshire man who had a burgeoning family and little luck in the West Indies trade during the American Revolution, sending the family into debt. The little money the family had went into schooling Raffles. He attended a boarding school. In 1795, at the age of 14, Raffles started working as a clerk in London for the British East India Company, the trading company that shaped many of Britain's overseas conquests. In 1805 he was sent to what is now Penang in the country of Malaysia, then called the Prince of Wales Island, starting his long association with Southeast Asia. He started with a post under the Honourable Philip Dundas, the Governor of Penang. He was appointed assistant secretary to the new Governor of Penang in 1805 and married Olivia Mariamne Fancourt, a widow who was formerly married to Jacob Cassivelaun Fancourt, an assistant surgeon in Madras who had died in 1800. At this time he also made the acquaintance of Thomas Otho Travers, who would accompany him for the next twenty years. His knowledge of the Malay language as well as his wit and ability, gained him favour with Lord Minto, Governor - General of India, and he was sent to Malacca. Then, in 1811, after the invasion and annexation of the Kingdom of Holland by
France during Napoleon's war, Raffles had no choice but to leave the
country. He mounted a military expedition against the Dutch and French
in Java, Indonesia. The war was swiftly conducted by Admiral Robert Stopford,
General Wetherhall, and Colonel Gillespie, who led a well organized
army against an army of mostly French conscripts with little proper
leadership. The previous Dutch governor, Herman Willem Daendels, had built a well defended fortification at Meester Cornelis (now Jatinegara), and at the time, the governor, Jan Willem Janssens (who, coincidentally, surrendered to the British at the Cape Colony),
mounted a brave but ultimately futile defence at the fortress. The
British, led by Colonel Gillespie, stormed the fort and captured it
within three hours. Janssens attempted to escape inland but was
captured. The British invasion of Java took a total of forty - five days,
during which Raffles was appointed the Lieutenant - Governor by Lord
Minto before hostilities formally ceased. He took his residence at Buitenzorg and
despite having a small subset of Britons as his senior staff, he kept
many of the Dutch civil servants in the governmental structure. He also
negotiated peace and mounted some small military expeditions against
local princes to subjugate them to British rule, as well as a takeover
of Bangka Island to set up a permanent British presence in the area in the case of the return of Java to Dutch rule after the end of the War of the Sixth Coalition in Europe. During his governorship, Raffles introduced partial self - government, stopped the slave trade, became an early opponent of the Opium trade by placing strict limitations upon its importation, much to the dismay of Calcutta, led an expedition to rediscover and restore Borobudur and other ancient monuments, and replaced the Dutch forced agriculture system with a land tenure system
of land management, probably influenced by the earlier writings of Dirk
van Hogendorp (1761 – 1822). He also changed the Dutch colonies to the
British system of driving on the left, which is why Indonesia drives on the left today. Under
the harsh conditions of the island, Olivia died on 26 November 1814, an
event that devastated Raffles. In 1815, he left again for England after
the island of Java was returned to control of the Netherlands following
the Napoleonic Wars, under the terms of the Anglo - Dutch Treaty of 1814, but not before he was officially replaced by John Fendall on
account of the poor financial performance of the colony during his
administration, as deemed by the successors of Lord Minto in Calcutta.
He sailed to England in early 1816 to clear his name, and en route,
visited Napoleon, who was in exile at St. Helena, but found him unpleasant and unimpressive. In 1817, Raffles wrote and published a book entitled History of Java, describing the history of the island from ancient times. In 1817 he was knighted by the prince regent, whose daughter, Princess Charlotte,
was particularly close to him. At the publication of the book, he also
stopped using the name "Thomas", preferring to use his middle name,
"Stamford", possibly to avoid confusion amongst his associates with Sir Thomas Sevestre or his cousin who bore the same name. On February 22, he married his second wife, Sophia Hull. He was appointed as the Governor - General of Bencoolen (now Bengkulu) on 15 October 1817, and set sail to take the post with his new wife. Raffles arrived in Bencoolen (Bengkulu)
on 19 March 1818. Despite the prestige connected with the title,
Bencoolen was a colonial backwater whose only real export was pepper
and only the murder of a previous Resident, Thomas Parr, gained it any
attention back home in Britain. Raffles found the place wrecked, and
set about reforms immediately, mostly similar to what he had done in
Java - abolishing slavery and limiting cockfighting and such games. To
replace the slaves, he used a contingent of convicts,
already sent to him from India. It is at this point when he realized
the importance of a British presence that both challenged the Dutch
hegemony in the area and could remain consistently profitable, unlike
Bencoolen or Batavia. However, the strategic importance of poorly maintained but well positioned British possessions such
as Penang or Bencoolen made it impossible for the British to abandon
such unprofitable colonies in such close proximity to the Dutch in
Java. The competition in the area, between Raffles and the aggressive
Dutch de jure Governor, Elout, certainly led at least in part to the later Anglo - Dutch Treaty of 1824.
Raffles looked into alternatives in the area - namely Bangka, which had
been ceded to the Dutch after its conquest by the British during its
occupation of Java. Bintan was also under consideration. Despite the fact that Warren Hastings overlooked the island before settling upon Penang in 1786, the Riau Archipelago was an attractive choice just to the south of the Malay Peninsula, for its proximity to Malacca.
In his correspondences with Calcutta, Raffles also emphasized the need
to establish a certain amount of influence with the native chiefs,
which had greatly waned since the return of the Dutch. Raffles sent
Thomas Travers as an ambassador to the Dutch, to possibly negotiate an
expansion of British economic interests. When this failed, and when
Raffles' own expeditions into his new dominion found only treacherous
terrain and few exportable goods, his desire to establish a better
British presence was cemented. However, the Anglo - Dutch Convention of 1814 was not completely clear, especially on the issue of certain possessions such as Padang. The Convention of 1814 only returned Dutch territory that was held
before 1803, which did not include Padang. Raffles asserted the British
claim personally, leading a small expedition to the Sultanate of Minangkabau.
Yet, as Raffles confirmed with the sultan regarding the absolute
British influence of the area, he realized that the local rulers had
only limited power over the well cultivated and civilized country, and
the treaty was largely symbolic and had little actual force. Meanwhile, Major William Farquhar, the British Resident of Malacca, had been attempting to negotiate commercial treaties with the local chiefs of the Riau Archipelago, especially with the heads of the Sultanate of Johore.
Due to the death and subsequent turmoil of the sultanate at the time of
Farquhar's arrival, Farquhar was compelled to sign the treaty not with
the official head of the sultanate, but rather, the Raja Muda (Regent
or Crown Prince) of Riau. Noting it as a success and reporting it as
such back to Raffles, Raffles sailed to Malacca in late 1818 to
personally secure a British presence in the Riau area, especially Singapura, which was favoured by him both through the readings of Malayan histories and by Farquhar's explorations. Despite Lord Hastings' less - than - stellar
opinion of Raffles before (which had necessitated his trip to England
to clear his name at the end of his tenure as Governor - General of
Java), the now well connected and successful Raffles was able to secure
the permission to set up a settlement where in Malaysian history the name Lion City was
applied and was in a strategically advantageous position. However, he
was not to provoke the Dutch, and his actions were officially
disavowed. Despite the best efforts in London by authorities such as the Viscount Castlereagh to quell Dutch fears and the continuing efforts to reach an agreement between the nations that eventually became the Anglo - Dutch Treaty of
London of 1824, as well as to send instructions to Raffles to undertake
far less intrusive actions, the distance between the Far East and
Europe had meant that the orders had no chance of reaching Raffles in
time for his venture to begin. After a brief survey of the Karimun Islands,
on 29 January 1819, he established a post at the southern tip of the
Malay Peninsula. It was established that there was no Dutch presence on
the island of Singapore. Johore also no longer had any control of the
area, so contact was made with the local Temenggong, or Raja. The
contacts were friendly and Raffles, knowledgeable about the muddled
political situation, took advantage to provide a rudimentary treaty
between the nominal chiefs of the area that called for the exclusivity
of trade and the British protection of the area. Members of Raffles'
party surveyed the island and proceeded to request the presence of the
sultan, or whoever at the time had supreme nominal power, to sign a
formal treaty, while Major Farquhar was ordered to do the same in Rhio.
A few days later, the formal treaty was signed by a man who claimed to
be the "lawful sovereign of the whole of territories extending from Lingga and Johor to Mount Muar". This man was Hussein Shah of Johor, who, although having had no previous contact with the British, had certainly heard of the might of the British navy and
was in no position to argue against the terms. However, Raffles was
able to charm the man and to reassure him that the Dutch posed no
threat in the area. Hussein Shah had been the crown Prince of Johor,
but while he was away in Pahang to get married, his father died and his
younger brother was made sultan, supported by some of the court
officials and the Dutch. To circumvent the situation of having to
negotiate with a sultan influenced by the Dutch, Raffles decided to
recognise, on behalf of the British Crown, Hussein Shah as being the
rightful ruler of Johor. Farquhar's attempt to establish a more
favorable treaty in Rhio was met with greater challenge, as the Dutch
were present and made for a rather awkward position. The Dutch were
alarmed and sent a small contingent to the island. Despite a covert
offer of subterfuge against the Dutch offered by the Raja of Rhio,
Farquhar returned and an official protest was sent by the Raja to Java
regarding the matter. Raffles
declared the foundation of what was to become modern Singapore on 6
February, securing the transfer of control of the island to the East
India Company. Much pomp and ceremony was done, and the official treaty
was read aloud in languages representing all nations present, as well
as the Malay and Chinese inhabitants. Hussien Shah was paid $5,000 a
year while the local Temenggong received $3,000 a year, both massive
sums at the time, equivalent to several hundred thousand dollars now.
Farquhar was officially named the Resident of Singapore as Raffles was
named as "Agent to the Most Noble the Governor - General with the States
of Rhio, Lingin and Johor". Although ownership of the post was to be
exclusively British, explicit orders were given to Farquhar to maintain
free passage of ships through the Strait of Singapore and
a small military presence was established alongside the trading post.
After issuing orders to Farquhar and the remaining Europeans, Raffles
left the next day, 7 February 1819. Raffles also planned to start a British presence in Achin,
at the northern tip of Sumatra. As soon as he left, the Raja of Rhio
sent letters to the Dutch, claiming innocence and a British
encroachment. The Dutch in Malacca acted at once, and ordered that no
Malays could go to Singapore. Raffles' bold claim of Singapore created
a curious geographic situation where although Penang was clearly closer
distance - wise to Singapore, Raffles, in his capacity as the
Governor - General of Bencoolen, was in control. This undoubtedly irked
the authorities in Penang to the point where they refused to send any
sepoys to Singapore to complete the garrison. Official Dutch complaints
came before the end of the month, and Raffles attempted to appease the
situation by instructing Farquhar to not interfere with the politics of
surrounding islands. Despite numerous threats and serious
considerations by the Dutch Governor - General in Java, the Dutch did not
take any military action. The muddled political situation in Johore and Rhio also created a certain uneasiness and instability for the two nations.Tengku Long was claimed to be a pretender to the throne, and, since the succession laws
in the Malay sultanates were not clear cut, the treaties signed between
native rulers and the European powers always seemed to be on the verge
of being invalidated, especially if a sultan is deposed by one of his
siblings or other pretenders. Nevertheless,
amidst the uncertainty and intrigue, Raffles landed in Achin on 14
March 1819, with the begrudging help of Penang. Once again, it seems
that multiple people were in power, but none wanted to formally deal
with the British. The hostile atmosphere created allowed for Raffles to
cancel the only meeting he was able to arrange, with Panglima Polim, a powerful divisional chief, fearing treachery. As the influential merchant John Palmer,
Raffles, and fellow commissioner John Monckton Coombs of Penang sat
offshore, waiting for a response, Calcutta debated whether to reinforce
Singapore or not. Evacuation plans were made, but the Dutch never acted
and finally Lord Hastings prompted Colonel Bannerman, the Governor of
Penang, to send funds to reinforce Singapore. Raffles
finally was able to convince his fellow commissioners to sign a treaty
with Jauhar al-Alam Shah, the ruler of Achin, which placed a British
resident as well as the exclusivity of trade. By the time Raffles
returned to Singapore, on 31 May, much of the immediate crisis that the
establishment of the colony had caused in both Penang and Calcutta had
passed. By then, the initial five - hundred villagers had grown to become
five - thousand merchants, soldiers, and administrators on the island.
Raffles was determined to both destroy the Dutch monopoly in the area,
and create a gateway to the trade with China and Japan, the latter of
which he attempted and failed to reach while governing Java.
While in Singapore, Raffles established schools and churches in the native languages. He allowed missionaries and local businesses to flourish. Certain colonial aspects remained: a European town was quickly built to segregate the
population, separated by a river; carriage roads were built and
cantonments constructed for the soldiers. Otherwise, however, no duties
were imposed and confident that Farquhar would follow his instructions
well, he sailed for Bencoolen once again on 28 June. Raffles was still the Governor - General of Bencoolen and
having returned to it after the settling of Singapore, Raffles started
more reforms that were, by now, almost trademarks of his reign upon
colonies. Forced labour was abolished when he first arrived, and he
declared Bencoolen a free port as well. Currency was regulated and as he had an excess of out - of - work civil servants,
formed committees to advise him in the running of the colony. However,
Bencoolen was not as self - sufficient as Singapore. The area was poor
and disease - ridden, and the first reports from the committees
reflected
very poorly upon the condition of the colony. Unlike the salutary neglect Raffles
granted upon Singapore, he slowed the European - inspired reforms and
emphasized on the cultivation of whatever land that was available.
Native authorities were given power in their respective districts and
were answerable only to the Governor - General. The slave - debtor system
was brought in in exchange instead of the old slavery system that
Raffles abolished in Java, Borneo, and initially in Bencoolen.
Slave - debtors were registered, and educational reforms started to focus
on the children instead of the entire population. Raffles was looking
into a long term plan for a slow reform of Bencoolen. Unlike
many other European colonizers, Raffles did not impose upon the
colonized the language, culture, or other aspects of the colonizer. In
addition to preserving the artifacts, fauna, and flora of his colonies, he also allowed religious freedom in his colonies, especially important as the Malay states were largely Muslim. However, Christian schools were started by missionaries in all of his colonies. The
death of Colonel Bannerman of Penang in October 1819 brought upon a new
opportunity for Raffles to expand his power to also include the other
minor British factories and outposts from Sumatra to Cochin China. He sailed to Calcutta and as Lord Hastings sought to consolidate all of the small British possessions in the East Indies.
During his sojourn, he had the opportunity to argue for free trade and
the protection of the private enterprise. Education and the retention
of small British outposts were also discussed. The Dutch claim on the Sultanate of Johore and hence, Rhio, and the diplomatic exchanges between Baron Godert van der Capellen and
Calcutta continued throughout this time. The legitimacy of the British
treaties were also questioned once again, but finally, as Singapore
grew at an exponential rate, the Dutch gave up their claim on the
island, allowing the colony to continue as a British possession.
However, the pressures put upon Calcutta ensured that no single
governor of all British possessions in the Strait or on Sumatra was
appointed, and Raffles, whose health was slowly ailing, returned to
Bencoolen. Raffles
returned to Bencoolen in ill health, but as his health improved, he
continued on his quest to learn about the island which he now called
home. He studied the Batak cannibals of Tapanuli and
their rituals and laws regarding the consumption of human flesh,
writing in detail about the transgressions that warranted such an act
as well as their methods. He also noted the rise of the Sikh religion in certain parts of Sumatra. By
early 1820, Tunku Long had firmly established himself as the Sultan of
Johore to the British, but the political situation in the area remained
a befuddled mess, with the old sultan dying and many new ones
attempting to gain either the crown or regency. As Farquhar was
involving himself poorly in local politics, Raffles appointed Travers
as the Resident of Singapore, replacing Farquhar. Upon his arrival,
Travers found the colony a delightful smörgåsbord of
different races and cultures, numbering over six thousand, and the
Singapore trade was slowly overtaking the Java trade. As
in Java, Raffles collected samples of local species of plants and
animals, as well as described them in his journals. He also described other local tribes and their customs, especially their religions and laws. He brought the island of Nias under British rule as well, noting its more civilized state and production of rice. Yet,
the production of food remained somewhat of a problem in Bencoolen.
Raffles paid special attention to the agricultural methods of the Chinese, and wrote an introduction to the only issue of Proceedings of the Agricultural Society, in order to remedy this. His employer, the East India Company,
however, had no other concerns outside of profit, and even as Raffles
lived like a country gentleman and ran his colony as an estate, his
expenditures in natural preservation was frowned upon. His removal was
discussed in both Calcutta and London, while Castlereagh continued
negotiations with the Dutch regarding the ongoing diplomatic conflicts. Luckily,
the Singapore issue had its supporters in the House, so as negotiations
went on in Europe, Raffles remained largely idle in Bencoolen. The only
major issue, outside of the politics of local sultans, involved the
replacement of Farquhar, who decided that he had no intention of
leaving his post voluntarily, causing a moment of tension between him
and Travers. Raffles' request for Travers to deliver dispatches to
India nullified the issue late in the year, and Farquhar remained in
charge in Singapore, with its survival still in doubt for many in both
India and London, who believed that it would either be handed over to
the Dutch or taken violently by the Dutch at the end of Castlereagh's
negotiations. Farquhar,
however, stirred up more trouble, conflicting especially with local
English merchants over trivial matters of self - importance and
overreaction over small infractions of white traders, for some of which
he was reprimanded by Calcutta officially. Public works, commissioned by Raffles but undertaken by Farquhar, was becoming overwhelmingly expensive. Personal tragedies also started for Raffles. His eldest son, Leopold, died during an epidemic on
4 July 1821. The oldest daughter, Charlotte, was also sick with
dysentery by the end of the year, but it would be his youngest son,
Stamford Marsden, who would perish first with the disease, 3 January
1822, with Charlotte to follow ten days later. For the good part of
four month the couple remained devastated. The year would be eventful
with the suicide of Castlereagh and the appointment of Lord Amherst as the Governor - General of India,
replacing Hastings. As Raffles grew restless and depressed, he decided
to visit Singapore before heading home to England. Accompanying him
would be his wife Sophia and their only surviving child, Ella. Raffles
was pleased at the fact that Singapore had grown exponentially in such
short years. The colony was a bustling hub of trade and activity.
However, Farquhar's development work was deemed unsatisfactory and
Raffles drew up what is now known as the Jackson Plan, and replanned the city according to recommendations of a committee headed by the colony's engineer, Phillip Jackson. It
was still a segregated plan, giving the best land to the Europeans, yet
it was considered remarkably scientific for the time. It was also
during the replanning and reconstruction of the town that allowed
Farquhar to clash dramatically with Raffles, who now considered
Farquhar unfit for the position of Resident. Raffles took direct
control with a heavy hand. In 1823, Raffles instituted a code of
settlement for the populace, and soon followed with laws regarding the
freedom of trade. He also quickly instituted a registration system for
all land, regardless of ownership, and the repossession of the land by
the government if land remained unregistered. This act greatly asserted
the power of the British government as it covered land previously owned
by the Sultan as well. A police force and magistrate was then set up,
under British principles. In a very short period of time, Raffles had
turned a semi - anarchic trading post into a proper city with some
semblance of order. Repeated
efforts by Raffles for Calcutta to send a replacement for Farquhar
remained unanswered. As Raffles started to hint at his impending
retirement, he made Johore a British protectorate, causing a protest
from van der Capellen. Finally, Calcutta appointed John Crawfurd, who had followed Raffles for over twenty years, as the Resident of Singapore. Captain William Gordon MacKenzie took over Bencoolen from Raffles. In March 1823, and coincidentally, on the
same day he was replaced, he received an official reprimand from London
for the takeover of Nias. With
politics against him, Raffles finally turned back to the natural
sciences. He gave a speech regarding the opening of a Malay college in
Singapore that heavily involved his observations of his years in
Southeast Asia and the importance of both the local and the European
languages. Raffles personally gave $2,000 towards the effort, as the
East India Company gave $4,000. In
1823, Raffles drafted the first constitution for Singapore, which
followed a fairly moralistic stance, outlawing gaming and slavery. A
specific regulation in the constitution called for the multiethnic
population of Singapore to remain as is, and there shall be no crimes
based on race. He then went to work drafting laws, defining exactly
"what" constituted a crime. Finally, on 9 July 1823, feeling that his
work in establishing Singapore was finished, he boarded a ship for
home, but not before a stop in Batavia to
visit his old home and adversary, van der Capellen. A final stop in
Bencoolen followed, and finally, a voyage home, interrupted by a
harrowing experience when one of the ships caught fire off Rat Island,
which claimed many of his drawings and papers. The Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 finally
settled the score in the East Indies. The British gained dominance in
the north, while the entirety of Sumatra became Dutch. The Malay
Peninsula and the Indian subcontinent were both free of Dutch interference. Raffles
finally returned to England 22 August 1824, over a year after he left
Singapore. His longest tenure in Singapore was only eight months, but
he was considered the founder of Singapore nevertheless. Upon arrival in England in poor health, both Sir Stamford and Lady Raffles convalesced in Cheltenham until
September, after which he entertained distinguished guests in both
London and his home. He also made plans to run for parliament, but this
ambition was never realized. He moved to London at the end of November,
just in time to have a war of words in front of the Court of Directors
of the EIC regarding Singapore with Farquhar, who had also arrived in
London. Despite raising several severe charges against Raffles,
Farquhar was ultimately unable to discredit him; he was denied a chance
to be restored to Singapore, but was given a military promotion instead. With
the Singapore matter settled, Raffles turned to his other great hobby -
botany. Raffles was a founder (in 1825) and first president (elected
April 1826) of the Zoological Society of London and the London Zoo. Meanwhile, he was not only not granted a pension, but was called to pay over twenty - two thousand pounds sterling for the
losses incurred during his administrations. Raffles replied and
clarified his actions, and moved to his country estate, Highwood, but
before the issue was resolved, he was already much too ill. He died in London, England, a day before his forty - fifth birthday, on 5 July 1826, of apoplexy.
His estate amounted to around ten thousand pounds sterling, which was
paid to the Company to cover his outstanding debt. Because of his anti - slavery stance, he was refused burial inside his local parish church (St. Mary's, Hendon) by the vicar,
whose family had made its money in the slave trade. A brass tablet was
finally placed in 1887 and the actual whereabouts of his body was not
known until 1914 when it was found in a vault. When the church was
extended in the 1920s his tomb was incorporated into the body of the
building. |