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Charles I (21 March 1226 – 7 January 1285), known also as Charles of Anjou, was the King of Sicily by conquest from 1266, though he had received it as a papal grant in 1262 and was expelled from the island in the aftermath of the Sicilian Vespers of 1282. Thereafter, he continued to claim the island, though his power was restricted to the peninsular possessions of the kingdom, with his capital at Naples (and for this he is usually titled King of Naples after 1282, as are his successors). Charles was the youngest son of Louis VIII of France and Blanche of Castile, and hence younger brother of Louis IX of France and Alfonso II of Toulouse. He conquered the Kingdom of Sicily from the Hohenstaufen and began to acquire lands in the eastern Mediterranean. However, the War of the Sicilian Vespers forced him to abandon his plans to reassemble the Latin Empire. By marriage to Beatrice, heiress of Raymond Berengar IV of Provence, he was Count of Provence and Forcalquier from 1246. In 1247, his brother Louis IX made him Count of Anjou and Maine, as appanages of the French crown. By conquest and self proclamation, he became King of Albania in 1272 and by purchase King of Jerusalem in 1277. By the testament of William II of Villehardouin, he inherited the Principality of Achaea in 1278.
Charles was born in 1226, shortly before the death of his father, King Louis VIII. Like his immediate older brother, Philippe Dagobert (who died in 1232 aged 10) he did not receive a county as appanage,
as had his older brothers. Shortly after the death of Philippe
Dagobert, his other brother, John Tristan, Count of Anjou and Maine,
also died. Charles became the next in line to receive the Counties, but
was formally invested only in 1247. The affection of his mother Blanche
seems largely to have been bestowed upon his brother Louis; and Louis
tended to favour his other younger brothers, Robert of Artois and Alphonse of Toulouse. The self - reliance this engendered in Charles may account for the drive and ambition he showed in his later life. Upon
his accession as Count of Provence and Forcalquier in 1246, Charles
rapidly found himself in difficulties. His sisters - in - law felt
cheated by their father's will, and his mother - in - law the Dowager
Countess
Beatrice of Savoy claimed the entire County of Forcalquier and the
usufruct of Provence as her jointure. Furthermore, while Provence was technically a part of the Kingdom of Burgundy and hence of the Holy Roman Empire,
in practice it was free of central authority. The recent counts had
governed with a light hand, and the nobilities and cities (three of
which, Marseille, Arles, and Avignon were
Imperial cities technically separate from the county) had enjoyed great
liberties. Charles, in contrast, was disposed towards a rigid
administration; he ordered inquests in 1252 and again in 1278 to
ascertain his rights. Charles
broke the traditional powers of the great towns (Nice, Grasse,
Marseille, Arles, Avignon) and aroused considerable hostility by his
punctilious insistence on enjoying his full rights and fees. In 1247,
while Charles had gone to France to receive the Counties of Anjou and
Maine, the local nobility (represented by Barral of Baux and Boniface of Castellane)
joined with Beatrice and the three Imperial cities to form a defensive
league against him. Unfortunately for Charles, he had promised to join
his brother on the Seventh Crusade.
For the time being, Charles' only recourse was to compromise with
Beatrice, allowing her to have Forcalquier and a third of the
Provençal usufruct. Rich
Provence provided the funds that supported his wider career. His rights
as landlord were on the whole of recent establishment, but his rights
as sovereign entitled him to revenues on the gabelles (mainly salt), from alberga (commutation of gîte) and cavalcata (commutation of the duties of military service) and quista ("aids"). From the Church, unlike his brothers in the north, he
received virtually nothing. Charles' agents were efficient, the towns
were prosperous, the peasants were buying up the duties of corvée and establishing self - governing consulats in the villages: Provence flourished.
Charles sailed with the rest of the Crusaders from Aigues - Mortes in 1248, and fought gallantly at Damietta and during the fighting around Mansourah. However, his piety does not seem to have matched that of his brother (Jean de Joinville relates a tale of Louis catching him gambling on the voyage from Egypt to Acre)
and he returned with his brother Alphonse in May 1250. During his
absence, open rebellion had broken out in Provence. Charles moved with
his characteristic energy to suppress it, and Arles, Avignon, and
Barral of Baux had surrendered to him by June 1251. Marseille held out
until July 1252, but then sued for peace. Charles imposed a lenient
peace, but insisted on the recognition of his full panoply of comital
rights, and acknowledgement of his suzerainity by Marseille. In November 1252, the death of his mother Blanche of Castile caused
him to go north to Paris and assume the joint regency of the kingdom
with his brother Alphonse. While in Paris, he was approached by envoys
from Pope Innocent IV. Innocent was then seeking to detach the Kingdom of Sicily from the Holy Roman Empire (in the person of Conrad IV of Germany), and offered it to Charles, after his brother - in - law Richard, Earl of Cornwall had
declined it. Alphonse, however, was cool to the idea; and King Louis
forbade it outright. Balked, Charles took up the cause of Margaret II of Flanders against her son, John I, Count of Hainaut in the War of the Succession of Flanders and Hainault. She granted him the County of Hainaut for his service. King Louis again disapproved, and on his return from Outremer in
1254 he returned Hainaut to John. The disappointed Charles returned to
Provence, which had become restive again. The mediation of King Louis
led to a settlement with Beatrice of Savoy, who returned Forcalquier
and relinquished her claims for a cash payment and a pension. Marseille
had attempted to involve Pisa and Alfonso X of Castile in
the quarrel, but they proved unreliable as allies, and a coup by the
supporters of Charles resulted in the surrender of the city's political
powers. Charles spent the next several years quietly increasing his
power over various lordships on the borders of Provence. A final
rebellion occurred in 1262, when he was absent in France; Boniface of
Castellane rebelled yet again, as did Marseille and Hugh of Baux.
However, Barral of Baux now remained loyal to Charles, and Charles
quickly returned to scatter the rebels. The mediation of James I of Aragon brought
about a settlement; while Marseille was forced to dismantle its
fortifications and surrender its arms, it otherwise went unpunished.
Surprisingly, this leniency worked to good effect; hereafter, the
Provençals proved staunch supporters of Charles, providing money
and troops for his further conquests. Many of them were to be rewarded
with high posts in his new dominions. With the usurpation of the Sicilian throne from Conradin by Manfred of Sicily in 1258, the relationship between the Papacy and the Hohenstaufen had changed again. Instead of the boy Conradin, safely sequestered across the Alps, the Papacy now faced an able military leader in Italy. Accordingly, when negotiations broke down with Manfred in 1262, Pope Urban IV again
took up the scheme of disseising the Hohenstaufen from the Kingdom, and
offered the crown to Charles again. Manfred's own usurpation from
Conradin told upon King Louis' scruples; this time, he was persuaded to
admit the offer, and Charles ratified a treaty with the Pope in July
1263. The terms were heavily in favor of the Pope; the Kingdom must
never be re-united with the Empire, and the King was never to hold
Imperial or Papal office, or interfere with ecclesiastical matters in
the Kingdom. Nevertheless, Charles accepted eagerly. For money, he
called for help from the then omnipotent Sienese banker, Orlando Bonsignori. Charles' cousin, Henry of Castile lent
him forty thousand gold ounces to finance the war against King Manfred.
This loan was never repaid. Henry of Castile, angered by Charles'
disregard, changed sides to Conradin's and fought with a host of
Spanish knights against Charles in Tagliacozzo. Defeated, Henry was
imprisoned by Charles for 22 years in Canosa di Puglia and Castel del
Monte, where he wrote the famous novel of chivalry, Amadis de Gaula.
Having
endorsed the treaty, Charles could now play for time. With Manfred's
troops advancing on the Papal States, Charles obtained an extensive
renegotiation of the treaty on more favorable lines. As instructions
went out to the clergy to submit contributions for the war, Urban IV
died in October 1264 at
Perugia,
fleeing Manfred. This raised the possibility of a reversal of Papal
policy. To underscore his resolve, he broke sharply with his previous
policy of leniency and ordered the execution of several
Provençal rebels, who had been in his hands for a year.
Fortunately for Charles, the new Pope Clement IV was
the former adviser to his brother Alphonse and strongly supported the
accession of Charles. Charles entered Rome on 23 May 1265 and was
proclaimed King of Sicily. Charles was popular in Rome, where he was elected Senator,
and his diplomacy had already undermined Manfred's support in northern
Italy. While Charles' campaigns were delayed for lack of money,
Manfred, curiously, idled away his time hunting in Apulia,
while his support in the north of Italy waned. Charles was able to
bring his main army through the Alps, and he and Beatrice were crowned
on 6 January 1266. As Charles' army began an energetic campaign,
Manfred suddenly shed his lethargy and moved to meet him. Worried that
further delays might endanger the loyalty of his supporters, he
attacked Charles' army, then in disarray from the crossing of the hills
into Benevento, on 26 February 1266. In the Battle of Benevento that
followed, Manfred's army was defeated in detail and he was killed in
the melee. Upon his death, resistance throughout the Kingdom collapsed,
and Charles became master of Sicily. While
Charles' administration in his new Kingdom was generally fair and
honest, it was also stringent. As in Provence, he insisted on
maximizing the revenues and privileges he could obtain from his new
subjects. Discontent was high; but for now, Charles could focus on
extending his power in northern Italy (which alarmed the Pope, who
feared a powerful king of all Italy as much as he did an Emperor). But
the Pope was willing to allow this; for in September 1267 Conradin marched south to reclaim the rights of the Hohenstaufen, and one of his agents instigated a revolt in Sicily. He entered Rome on 24 July 1268, where his arrival was wildly celebrated. At the Battle of Tagliacozzo, on 23 August 1268, it appeared he might win the day; but a sudden
charge of Charles' reserve discomfited his army and he was forced to
flee to Rome. Told it was no longer safe, he attempted to escape to Genoa, but was arrested and imprisoned in the Castel dell'Ovo in Naples.
In a trial carefully managed by Charles, Conradin was condemned for
treason, and he was beheaded on 29 October 1268 at the age of 16. By
the end of 1270, he had captured Lucera and
put down the revolt in Sicily, executing many of the captured. With the
whole kingdom cowed beneath his strict, if fair, rule, he was ready to
consider greater conquests.
After
the defeat of Manfred at Benevento, Charles immediately began to plan
his expansion into the Mediterranean. Historically, the Kingdom of
Sicily had at times controlled parts of the eastern Adriatic seaboard, and Manfred possessed the island of Corfu and the towns of Butrinto, Avlona and Suboto,
which had formed the dowry of his wife Helena. Charles seized these at
the end of 1266. From thence, he passed on to intrigue with the
remaining nobility of the Latin Empire. In May 1267, he concluded the Treaty of Viterbo with the exiled Baldwin II of Constantinople and William II Villehardouin (through his chancellor Leonardo of Veruli).
Taking advantage of the precarious situation of the remains of the
Empire in the face of rising Greek power, he obtained confirmation of
his possession of Corfu, the suzerain rights over Achaea, and
sovereignty over most of the Aegean islands.
Furthermore, the heirs of both the Latin princes were to marry children
of Charles, and Charles was to have the reversion of the Empire and
Principality should the couples have no heirs. With few options to
check the Byzantine tide, he was well placed to dictate terms.
Charles' wife Beatrice died on 23 September 1267, and he immediately sought a new marriage to Margaret, daughter of Bela IV of Hungary. However, Margaret wished to be a nun (and was later canonized); Charles instead married (on 18 November 1268), Margaret, Countess of Tonnerre (1250 – 4 September 1308, Tonnerre), the daughter of Eudes of Burgundy. However, he was able to make a marital alliance with the Hungarians: his son Charles, Prince of Salerno married Maria, daughter of crown prince Stephen, while Charles' daughter Elizabeth married Stephen's son Ladislas.
Having thus made secure his position in the East, he began to prepare a crusade to recover the Latin Empire. Michael VIII Palaeologus was
greatly alarmed at the prospect: he wrote to King Louis, suggesting
that he was open to a voluntary union of the Roman and Latin churches,
and pointing out the interference a descent on Constantinople would
pose to Louis' own crusading plans. Louis took a dim view of his
sincerity; but he was eager to take up the cross again, and he notified
Charles of his intentions. Charles continued with his preparations
against Constantinople, hoping the crusade might be postponed, but he
also prepared to turn his brother's crusade to his own advantage. The
Caliph of Tunis, Muhammad I al-Mustansir had been a vassal of Sicily, but had shaken off his allegiance with the fall of Manfred. However,
there were rumors he might be sympathetic to Christianity. Accordingly,
Charles suggested to his brother that the arrival of a crusade in his
support might bring about Mustansir's conversion. Thus it was that
Louis directed the Eighth Crusade
against Tunis. Charles did not arrive until late in the day on 25
August 1270,
only to find that his brother had died of dysentery that morning.
Charles took command, and after a few skirmishes, Mustansir concluded a
peace treaty and agreed to pay tribute to Charles. Illness continued to
plague the army, however, and a storm devastated the fleet of 18
men - of - war and innumerable smaller vessels as it returned to
Sicily.
Charles was forced to postpone his designs against Constantinople again. In February 1271, Charles began to expand his Adriatic possessions by capturing Durazzo, and he soon controlled much of the Albanian interior. In February 1272, he proclaimed himself King of Albania and appointed Gazzo Chinardo as his Vicar - General. He hoped to take up his expedition against Constantinople again, but was delayed by the rise of Pope Gregory X, consecrated on 27 March 1272. Gregory had high hopes of reconciling Europe, unifying the Greek and Latin churches, and launching a new crusade: to that end, he announced the Council of Lyon, to be held in 1274, and worked to arrange the election of an Emperor. In November 1272, the strained relations between Charles and Ghibelline ruled Genoa finally
broke into war. Ghibelline revolts broke out across the north of Italy,
and increasingly occupied the attention of Charles, even as Michael
Palaeologus was negotiating a union of churches with the Pope. At the
same time, he had made contact with Genoa and was sending money to
encourage the revolts in the north. At the apparently successful
conclusion of the Council of Lyon, a Union of Churches was declared,
and Charles and Philip of Courtenay were
compelled to extend a truce with Michael. This was a blessing in
disguise for Charles, for the Ghibellines now controlled most of the
north, and he was forced to retreat from Piedmont in late 1275. In truth, Pope Gregory was not entirely displeased; he regarded north Italy as best dealt with by its new Emperor, Rudolph of Habsburg, and preferred that Charles be confined to the south. If he wished to make war, let him look to Outremer; and to this end, Gregory endorsed the sale to Charles of the claims of Maria of Antioch on the Kingdom of Jerusalem, which had been rejected by the Haute Cour there. On 18 March 1277, he bought her claim and assumed the title of King of Jerusalem, sending Roger of San Severino as his bailli to Acre. There Roger ousted Balian of Ibelin, the bailli of Hugh III and compelled the nobles to swear fealty. In the meantime, Gregory had been succeeded by Pope Innocent V, who arranged a peace between Charles and the Genoese. Meanwhile, in Constantinople, the Union of the Churches was proving difficult to arrange, and the Emperor Michael had
great difficulty in imposing it on his people. Nevertheless, he
persuaded Innocent of his sincerity in working towards it, and Charles
was again forbidden to attack Constantinople. Knowing this, Michael
began a campaign in Albania in late 1274, where he captured Berat and Butrinto. He also enjoyed some success in his campaigns in Euboea and the Peloponnese. Affairs dragged on for several years, until the accession of Pope Martin IV on
23 March 1281. Pope Martin was a Frenchman, and lacked the
even handedness of some of his recent precursors. He brought the full
power of the Papacy into line behind Charles' plans. The Union, which
had proved impossible to impose upon Constantinople, was called off,
and Charles given authorization for the restoration of the Latin Empire. He opened his campaign in Albania, where his general Hugh of Sully with 8,000 men (including 2,000 cavalry) captured Butrinto from the Despotate of Epirus in 1280 and besieged Berat. A Byzantine army of relief under Michael Tarchaneiotes arrived
in March, 1281: Hugh of Sully was ambushed and captured, and his army
put to flight. The Byzantines took possession of the interior of
Albania. Nor was Charles particularly successful in Achaea, where he
had become (by the Treaty of Viterbo) Prince of Achaea on the death of William II Villehardouin in 1278. His bailli Galeran of Ivry was defeated at Skorta in his one attempt to engage the Byzantines, and was recalled in 1280 and replaced by Philip of Lagonesse.
Nonetheless, Charles was to launch the body of his crusade (400 ships
carrying 27,000 mounted knights) against Constantinople in the spring
of 1282. But
Michael had not been working upon the military front alone. Many
Ghibelline officials had fled the Kingdom of Sicily to the court of Peter III of Aragon, who had married Constance, the daughter and heir of Manfred. Manfred's former chancellor, John of Procida,
had arranged contact between Michael, Peter and the refugees at his
court, and conspirators on the island of Sicily itself. Peter began to
assemble a fleet at Barcelona,
ostensibly for another Crusade to Tunis. In fact, the master plan of
John of Procida was to place Peter on the throne of Sicily, his
Hohenstaufen inheritance. The result was the uprising known as the Sicilian Vespers,
which was initiated in Palermo on 29 March 1282. It rapidly grew into a
general massacre of the French in Sicily. A few officials notable for
their good conduct were spared; and the city of Messina still held for Charles. But through the diplomatic errors of Charles' Vicar, Herbert of Orléans, Messina, too, revolted on 28 April 1282. Herbert retreated to the castle of Mategriffon, but was forced to abandon the Crusading fleet, which was burnt. The
news surprised Peter of Aragon, who had expected to intervene only
after Charles had left for Constantinople. But the conspirators, aided
by the Emperor Michael (who wished to see Charles balked in his
expedition), had set the revolt in motion early. Peter did not
immediately intervene; he sailed with the fleet to Tunis, where he
discovered that the would-be convert on whose behalf the crusade had
ostensibly been undertaken had been caught and executed. While he bided
his time, the Sicilians made an appeal to Pope Martin to take the
Communes of their cities under his protection. But Martin was far too
deeply committed to Charles and French interests to heed them; instead,
he excommunicated the rebels, the Emperor Michael, and the Ghibellines
in north Italy. Charles gathered his forces in Calabria and
made a landing near Messina and began a siege. Several attempts to
assault the city were unsuccessful. Rejected by the Pope, the Sicilians
now appealed to King Peter and Queen Constance; he duly accepted, and
landed at Trapani on 30 August 1282. He was proclaimed King in Palermo on
4 September; as the Archibishopric of Palermo was vacant, he could not
immediately be crowned. In the face of the Aragonese landing, Charles
was compelled to withdraw across the Straits of Messina into Calabria
in September; but the Aragonese moved swiftly enough to destroy part of
his army and most of his baggage. The Angevin house was forever ousted from Sicily. Despite his retreat into Calabria, Charles remained in a strong position. His nephew, Philip III of France,
was devoted to him; and Pope Martin regarded the rebellion as an
affront both to French interests and his own rights as suzerain of the
Kingdom. Both sides temporized; the expense of a long war might be
disastrous for both, and Peter and Charles arranged for a judicial
duel, with a hundred knights apiece, on 1 June 1283 at Bordeaux. Skirmishes and raids continued to occur: in January 1283, Aragonese guerillas attacked Catona and killed Count Peter I of Alençon in his hostel. In February, the Aragonese crossed into Calabria to face off with Charles of Salerno. However, tensions between the Aragonese and the Sicilians had begun to
rise. Both men now hoped to turn the war to their advantage, and the
judicial duel turned into a farce, the two kings arriving at different
times, declaring a victory over their absent opponent, and departing.
Now the war was to escalate: Pope Martin had excommunicated Peter and
proclaimed the war against the Sicilians a Crusade in January, and in
March, declared Peter to be deprived of his dominions. On 2 February
1284, Aragon and Valencia were officially conferred upon Charles of Valois.
The war continued in Italy: while little progress had been made in
Calabria, a detachment of the Aragonese fleet was blockading Malta.
Charles of Salerno sent a newly raised Provençal fleet to the
relief of Malta; but it was caught by the main Aragonese fleet under Roger of Lauria and destroyed in the Battle of Malta.
The Aragonese were now, however, running quite short of money, and
Peter was threatened by the prospect of a French attack on Aragon. King
Charles planned to raise new troops and a fleet in Provence, and
instructed Charles of Salerno to maintain a strict defensive posture
until his return from France. However, Roger of Lauria continued to
command the sea and launch harassing raids up and down the coast of
Calabria, and in May 1284 he successfully blockaded Naples, basing a small squadron on the island of Nisida to
do so. The Neapolitans were infuriated by the blockade; and in June,
Charles of Salerno armed the newly launched fleet at Naples and
embarked on 5 June to destroy the blockading squadron. Evidently
believing the main Aragonese fleet was raiding down the coast, he hoped
to destroy the blockading squadron and return to Naples before it
returned. However, Roger of Lauria had learned of his plans, and
Charles found himself engulfed by superior numbers. After a short,
sharp, fight, most of his fleet was captured, and he himself was taken
prisoner. News
of the reverse caused anti - French riots in Naples, and Roger of Lauria
was quick to take advantage of Charles' captivity to obtain the release
of Beatrice, daughter of Manfred of Sicily, then held in Naples. King Charles arrived in Gaeta on
6 June and learned of the disaster. He was furious at his son and his
disobedience; by the time he reached Naples, the riots had been
quelled. He advanced on Calabria and attempted a landing in Sicily; but
his main army was blocked at Reggio,
and he retreated from Calabria entirely on 3 August. He continued to
make preparations for a campaign against Sicily in the new year; but
his health failed. On 7 January 1285, he died in Foggia. On his death, Charles left all of his domains to his son Charles, then a prisoner in Catalonia. For the time being, they were held by a joint regency between a papal legate and Robert II of Artois.
Charles had spent his life striving to assemble a Mediterranean empire
out of whatever land he could get through law or force of arms. He did
so, it seems, with a clear conscience; he regarded himself as God's
instrument to uphold the Papacy and punish the Hohenstaufen.
He ruled justly, but with the rigidity and severity that might be
expected in one of his convictions. Ultimately, his unbending austerity
could not inspire the devotion needed to hold his conquests together. Still, he was to leave a substantial legacy to his heirs. Henry II of Cyprus reclaimed the Kingdom of Jerusalem after his death, for the few short years left to it; but his possessions otherwise remained within the Angevin dynasty
which he founded, or their descendants. Both the Angevins and their
Aragonese rivals were to claim the title of "King of Sicily"; but the
Angevins, confined to the mainland, would be known to history as "Kings
of Naples". But the style of "King of Sicily" persisted; and when the
two realms were reunited, it was under the style of "King of the Two
Sicilies". Charles
of Anjou contributed to the early medieval revival of learning, often
referred to as the "Latin" Renaissance, through his employment of
several Jewish scholars at the University of Salerno and Naples, who
were expert translators. The most famous of these, Moses of Palermo, he
had tutored in Latin, to enable direct translations of ancient
classical and Arab texts. These Jewish scholars translated dozens of
philosophical and medical treatises into Latin, bringing the heritage
of classical antiquity and the great contemporary Muslim culture to
pre-Renaissance Europe. However, his wars resulted in an even more serious consequence than the partition of the Kingdom of Sicily. Pope Martin IV had
hopelessly compromised the Papacy in his cause; and the botched secular
"Crusades" against Sicily and (after Charles' death) Aragon greatly
tarnished its spiritual power. The collapse of its moral authority and
the rise of nationalism rang the death knell for Crusading, and would
ultimately lead to the Avignon Papacy and the Western Schism.
Charles was an able soldier and a good administrator; but his failure
to understand the qualities of his diverse subjects, and his grasping,
if pious, ambition, ultimately led him to failure. In the Divine Comedy Dante sees Charles outside the gates of Purgatory "singing in accord" with his former rival Peter. Charles was wedded to Beatrice of Provence on 31 January 1246, in Aix - en - Provence. Beatrice was the youngest daughter of Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Provence and Forcalquier, who had died on 19 August 1245 by his wife Beatrice of Savoy.
As his elder three daughters had all married kings and received
substantial dowries, Raymond settled his entire inheritance upon
Beatrice, making Charles Count of Provence and Forcalquier. They had
the following children: After the death of Beatrice, he married Margaret of Burgundy in 1268. Their only daughter, Margaret, died in infancy. |