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Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke (16
September 1678 – 12 December 1751) was an English politician,
government official and political philosopher. He was
a leader of the Tories, and
supported the Church of England politically despite
his atheism. In 1715 he supported the Jacobite rebellion of 1715 which
sought to overthrow the new king George I. Escaping to France he became
foreign minister for the Pretender. He was attained
for treason, but reversed course and was allowed to
return to England in 1723. He is best known as the
philosopher of the Country Party. In Britain,
"Bolingbroke" is pronounced Bullingbrook or Bullenbrook. Henry St John was most likely born at Lydiard Tregoze, the family seat in Wiltshire, and christened in Battersea. St John was the son of Sir Henry St John, (later 1st Viscount St John) and Lady Mary Rich, daughter of the 2nd Earl of Warwick. Although it has been asserted that St John was educated at Eton College and Christ Church College, Oxford, his name does not appear on registers for either institution and there is no evidence to support either claim. It is possible he was educated at a Dissenting academy. He travelled to France, Switzerland and Italy during
1698 and 1699 and acquired an exceptional knowledge of French. St John made friends with the Whigs James Stanhope and Edward Hopkins and
corresponded with the Tory Sir William Trumball,
who advised him: "There appears indeed amongst us [in
England] a strong disposition to liberty, but neither
honesty nor virtue enough to support it". St John Oliver Goldsmith reported
that he had been seen to "run naked through the park
in a state of intoxication". Swift, his intimate friend, said that
he wanted to be thought the Alcibiades or Petronius of his
age, and to mix licentious orgies with the highest
political responsibilities. In 1700, he married
Frances, daughter of Sir Henry Winchcombe of Bucklebury, Berkshire, but this made little
difference to his lifestyle. He was returned to Parliament in 1701 for the family borough of Wootton Bassett in Wiltshire, as a Tory. His seat was Lydiard Park at Lydiard Tregoze, now in the Borough of Swindon. He attached himself to Robert Harley (afterwards Lord Oxford), then speaker, and distinguished himself by his eloquence in debate, eclipsing his schoolfellow, Robert Walpole, and gaining an extraordinary ascendancy over the House of Commons. In May, he had charge of the bill for securing the Protestant succession; he took part in the impeachment of the Whig lords for their conduct concerning the Partition treaties, and opposed the oath of loyalty against the "Old Pretender". In March 1702, he was chosen commissioner for taking the public accounts. After Queen Anne's accession, St John supported the bills in 1702 and 1704 against occasional conformity, and took a leading part in the disputes which arose between the two Houses. In 1704, St John took office with Harley as secretary at war, thus being brought into intimate relations with John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, by whom he was treated with favour. In 1708, he left office with Harley on the failure of the latter's intrigue, and retired to the country till 1710, when he became a privy counsellor and secretary of state in Harley's new ministry, representing Berkshire in parliament. He supported the bill for requiring a real property qualification for a seat in parliament. In 1711 he founded the Brothers' Club, a society of Tory politicians and men of letters, and the same year witnessed the failure of the two expeditions to the West Indies and to Canada promoted by him. In 1712, he was the author of the bill taxing newspapers. The refusal of the Whigs to make peace with
France in 1706, and again in 1709 when Louis XIV offered
to yield every point for which the allies professed to
be fighting, showed that the war was not being
continued in the national interest, and the ministry
was supported by the queen, Parliament and the people
in wishing to terminate hostilities. Because of the
diversity of aims among the allies, St John was
induced to enter into separate and secret negotiations
with France for the security of English interests. In
May 1712, he ordered the Duke of Ormonde, who had succeeded
Marlborough in command, to refrain from any further
engagement. These instructions were communicated to
the French, though not to the allies, Louis putting Dunkirk as
security into possession of England, and the English
troops deserted their allies almost on the
battlefield. Subsequently St John received the
congratulations of the French foreign minister, Torcy,
on the French victory over Prince Eugene at Denain. In August 1712, St John, who had been created Viscount Bolingbroke went to France and signed an armistice between England and France for four months. Finally, the Treaty of Utrecht was signed in March 1713 by all the allies except the emperor. The first production of Addison's Cato was made by the Whigs the occasion of a great demonstration of indignation against the peace, and by Bolingbroke for presenting the actor Barton Booth with a purse of fifty guineas for "defending the cause of liberty against a perpetual dictator" (Marlborough). In June, Bolingbroke's commercial treaty with France, establishing free trade with that country, was rejected. Meanwhile, the friendship between Bolingbroke and Harley, the basis of the whole Tory administration, had been gradually dissolved. In March 1711, when the Marquis de Guiscard made an attempt on Harley's life, Bolingbroke assumed temporary leadership of the ministry's affairs. His difficulty in controlling the Tory back - benchers, however, only made Harley's absence the more noticeable. In May, Harley obtained the earldom of Oxford and was made lord treasurer, while in July, St John was greatly disappointed at receiving only his viscountcy instead of the earldom lately extinct in his family, and at being passed over for the Order of the Garter. In September 1713, Swift came to London, and made a final vain attempt to reconcile his two friends. But now a further cause of difference had arisen. The queen's health was visibly breaking, and the Tory ministers anticipated their downfall on the accession of the Elector of Hanover. During Bolingbroke's diplomatic mission to France he had incurred blame for remaining at the opera while the Pretender was present, and according to the Mackintosh transcripts he had several secret interviews with him. Regular communications were kept up subsequently. In March 1714, Herville, the French envoy in London, sent to Torcy, the French foreign minister, the substance of two long conversations with Bolingbroke in which the latter advised patience till after the accession of George I, when a great reaction was to be expected in favour of the Pretender. At the same time, he spoke of the treachery of Marlborough and Berwick, and of one Other, presumably Oxford, whom he refused to name, all of whom were in communication with Hanover. Both Oxford and Bolingbroke warned James that he could have little chance of success unless he changed his religion, but the latter's refusal does not appear to have stopped the communications. Bolingbroke gradually superseded Oxford in
the leadership. Lady Masham, the
queen's favourite, quarrelled with Oxford and
identified herself with Bolingbroke's interests. The
harsh treatment of the Hanoverian demands was inspired
by him, and won favour with the queen, while Oxford's
influence declined; and by his support of the Schism
Bill in May 1714, a violent Tory measure forbidding
all education by dissenters by making an episcopal
licence obligatory for schoolmasters, he probably
intended to compel Oxford to give up the game.
Finally, a charge of corruption brought by Oxford in
July against Bolingbroke and Lady Masham, in connexion
with the commercial treaty with Spain, failed, and the
lord treasurer was dismissed or retired on 27 July
1714. The Queen died four days later, after appointing Shrewsbury to the
lord treasurership. On the accession of George I the illuminations and bonfire at Lord Bolingbroke's house in Golden Square were "particularly fine and remarkable," but he was immediately dismissed from office. The new king had been close to the Whigs but he was willing to bring in Tories. The Tories however refused to serve and gambled everything on an election, which they lost. The triumphant Whigs systematically removed the Tories for most of the posts nationally and regionally. Bolingbroke followed an erratic course that baffled his contemporaries and historians. He retired to Bucklebury and is said to have now written the answer to the Secret History of the White Staff accusing him of being a Jacobite. In March 1715, he in vain attempted to defend the late ministry in the new parliament; and on the announcement of Walpole's intended attack upon the authors of the Treaty of Utrecht he gave up. Bolingbroke fled in disguise to Paris -- a major blunder. In an even greater blunder he joined the Pretender, was made an earl, and took charge of foreign affairs in the Stuart court. The uprising of 1715 was badly botched and the death of Louis XIV meant the Pretender had lost his major sponsor; King Louis XV wanted peace with Britain and refused to endorse and further schemes. In March 1716, Bolingbroke switched sides again. He had lost his titles and property when Parliament voted a bill of attainder for treason. He hoped to recover the good graces of King George, and indeed managed to do so in a few years. He wrote his Reflexions
upon Exile, and in 1717, his letter to Sir William Wyndham in
explanation of his position, generally considered one
of his finest compositions, but not published till
1753 after his death. The same year, he formed a
liaison with a widow Marie Claire Deschamps de
Marcilly, whom he married in 1720, two years after his
first wife's death. He bought and resided at the
estate of La Source near Orléans, studied philosophy,
criticized the chronology of the Bible, and was
visited amongst others by Voltaire, who expressed unbounded
admiration for his learning and politeness. In 1723, through the medium of the king's mistress, Ehrengard Melusine von der Schulenburg, Duchess of Kendal and Munster, he received a pardon, returned to London. Walpole reluctantly accepted his return. In 1725, Parliament enabled him to hold real estate but without power of alienating it. But this had been effected in consequence of a peremptory order of the king, against Walpole's wishes, who succeeded in maintaining his exclusion from the House of Lords. He now bought an estate at Dawley, near Uxbridge, where he renewed his intimacy with Pope, Swift and Voltaire, took part in Pope's literary squabbles, and wrote the philosophy for the Essay on Man. On the first occasion which offered itself, that of Pulteney's rupture with Walpole in 1726, he endeavoured to organize an opposition in conjunction with the former and Wyndham; and in 1727, began his celebrated series of letters to the Craftsman, attacking the Walpoles, signed "an Occasional Writer". He gained over the Duchess of Kendal with a bribe of £11,000 from his wife's estates, and with Walpole's approval obtained an audience with George. His success was imminent, and it was thought his appointment as chief minister was assured. In Walpole's own words, "as St John had the duchess entirely on his side I need not add what must or might in time have been the consequence," and he prepared for his dismissal. But once more Bolingbroke's "fortune turned rotten at the very moment it grew ripe," and his projects and hopes were ruined by the king's death in June. He wrote additional essays signed "John Trot" that appeared in the Craftsman in 1728, and in 1730 followed Remarks on the History of England by Humphrey Oldcastle, attacking Walpole's policy. Comment prompted by Bolingbroke was continued in the House of Commons by Windham, and great efforts were made to establish the alliance between the Tories and the Opposition Whigs. The Excise Bill in 1733 and the Septennial Bill in the following year offered opportunities for further attacks on the government, which Bolingbroke supported by a new series of papers in the Craftsman styled "A Dissertation on Parties"; but the whole movement collapsed after the new elections, which returned Walpole to power in 1735 with a large majority. Bolingbroke retired baffled and disappointed from the fray to France in June, residing principally at the château of Argeville near Fontainebleau. He now wrote his Letters on the Study of History (printed privately before his death and published in 1752), and the True Use of Retirement. In 1738, he visited England, became one of the leading friends and advisers of Frederick, Prince of Wales, who now headed the opposition, and wrote for the occasion The Patriot King, which together with a previous essay, The Spirit of Patriotism, and The State of Parties at the Accession of George I, were entrusted to Pope and not published. Having failed, however, to obtain any share in politics, he returned to France in 1739, and subsequently sold Dawley. In 1742 and 1743, he again visited England and quarrelled with Warburton. In 1744, he settled finally at Battersea with his friend Hugh Hume, 3rd Earl of Marchmont, and was present at Pope's death in May. The discovery that the poet had printed secretly 1500 copies of The Patriot King, caused him to publish a correct version in 1749, and stirred up a further altercation with Warburton, who defended his friend against Bolingbroke's bitter aspersions, the latter, whose conduct was generally reprehended, publishing a Familiar Epistle to the most Impudent Man Living. In 1744, he had been very busy assisting in the negotiations for the establishment of the new "broad bottom" administration, and showed no sympathy for the Jacobite expedition in 1745. He recommended the tutor for Prince George, afterwards George III. About 1749, he wrote the Present State of the Nation, an unfinished pamphlet. Philip Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield records the last words heard from him: "God who placed me here will do what He pleases with me hereafter and He knows best what to do". He died on 12 December 1751, aged 73, his second wife having predeceased him by one year. They were both buried in the parish church at Battersea, where a monument with medallions and inscriptions composed by Bolingbroke was erected to their memory. In the late 20th century,
Bolingbroke was rediscovered by historians as a
major influence on Voltaire,
and especially on American Patriots especially John Adams, Thomas Jefferson and James Madison. Adams said that he
had read all of Bolingbroke's works at least five
times; indeed, Bolingbroke's works were widely
read in the American colonies, where they helped
provide the foundation for emerging nation's
devotion to Republicanism in the United States.
His vision of history in terms of the cycles of
birth, growth, decline, and death of a republic
were especially influential in the colonies, as
was his contention that liberty was only secure
under law, and that one is "free not from the law,
but by the law." Bute and George III derived their political ideas from The Patriot King. Edmund Burke wrote his Vindication of Natural Society in imitation of Bolingbroke's style, but in refutation of his principles; and in the Reflections on the French Revolution he exclaims, "Who now reads Bolingbroke, who ever read him through?" Burke denied that Bolingbroke's words left "any permanent impression on his mind". The loss of Bolingbroke's great speeches was
regretted by William Pitt more than
that of the missing books of Livy and Tacitus. By the early 20th century,
the writings and career of Bolingbroke would make a
far weaker impression than they made on
contemporaries. He was thought to be a man of
brilliant and versatile talents, but selfish,
insincere, and intriguing, defects of character which
arguably led to his political ruin; and his writings
were described as glittering, artificial and lacking
philosophical merit. It has been said that his
abilities were exercised upon ephemeral objects, and
not inspired by lasting or universal ideas. Bolingbroke was especially influential in stating the need and outlining the machinery of a systematic parliamentary opposition. Such an opposition he called a "country party" which he opposed to the court party. Country parties had been formed before, for instance after the king's speech to Parliament in November 1685, but Bolingbroke was the first to state the need for a continual opposition to the government. To his mind the spirit of liberty was threatened by the court party's lust for power. Liberty could only be safeguarded by an opposition party that used "constitutional methods and a legal course of opposition to the excesses of legal and ministerial power…". He instructed the opposition party to "Wrest the power of government, if you can, out of the hands that employed it weakly and wickedly". This work could be done only by a homogeneous party "…because such a party alone will submit to a drudgery of this kind". It didn't suffice to be eager to speak, keen to act. "They who affect to head an opposition ,…, ust be equal, at least, to those whom they oppose…". The opposition had to be of a permanent nature to make sure that it would be looked at as a part of daily politics. It had to contrast, on every occasion, the government. He considered a party that systematically opposed the government to be more appealing than a party that occasionally opposed the government. This opposition had to prepare itself to control government. He was succeeded in the title as 2nd Viscount Bolingbroke, according to the
special remainder, by his half - nephew Frederick, 3rd Viscount St
John (a
title granted to Bolingbroke's father in 1716), from
whom the title has descended. Frederick was the son of
the 1st Viscount's half brother John St John, by his
father's 2nd wife Angelica Magdalena Pelissary. |