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Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (February 27, 1807 - March 24, 1882) was an American poet and educator whose works include "Paul Revere's Ride", The Song of Hiawatha and Evangeline. He was also the first American to translate Dante Alighieri's The Divine Comedy and was one of the five Fireside Poets. Longfellow was born in Portland, Maine, then part of Massachusetts, and studied at Bowdoin College. After spending time in Europe he became a professor at Bowdoin and, later, at Harvard College. His first major poetry collections were Voices of the Night (1839) and Ballads and Other Poems (1841). Longfellow retired from teaching in 1854 to focus on his writing, living the remainder of his life in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in a former headquarters of George Washington. His first wife Mary Potter died in 1835 after a miscarriage. His second wife Frances Appleton died in 1861 after sustaining burns when her dress caught fire. After her death, Longfellow had difficulty writing poetry for a time and focused on his translation. He died in 1882. Longfellow wrote predominantly lyric poems, known for
their musicality and often presenting stories of mythology
and legend. He became the most popular American poet of
his day and also had success overseas. He has been
criticized, however, for imitating European styles and
writing specifically for the masses. Longfellow was born on February 27, 1807, to Stephen Longfellow and Zilpah (Wadsworth) Longfellow in Portland, Maine, then a district of Massachusetts, and he grew up in what is now known as the Wadsworth - Longfellow House. His father was a lawyer, and his maternal grandfather, Peleg Wadsworth, was a general in the American Revolutionary War and a Member of Congress. He was named after his mother's brother Henry Wadsworth, a Navy lieutenant who had died three years earlier at the Battle of Tripoli. Young Longfellow was the second of eight children; his siblings were Stephen (1805), Elizabeth (1808), Anne (1810), Alexander (1814), Mary (1816), Ellen (1818) and Samuel (1819). Henry Wadsworth Longfellow was enrolled in a dame school at the age of three and by age six was enrolled at the private Portland Academy. In his years there, he earned a reputation as being very studious and became fluent in Latin. His mother encouraged his enthusiasm for reading and learning, introducing him to Robinson Crusoe and Don Quixote. He printed his first poem — a patriotic and historical four stanza poem called "The Battle of Lovell's Pond" — in the Portland Gazette on November 17, 1820. He stayed at the Portland Academy until the age of fourteen. He spent much of his summers as a child at his grandfather Peleg's farm in the western Maine town of Hiram. In the fall of 1822, the 15 year old Longfellow enrolled at Bowdoin College in Brunswick, Maine, alongside his brother Stephen. His grandfather was a founder of the college and his father was a trustee. There, Longfellow met Nathaniel Hawthorne, who would later become his lifelong friend. He boarded with a clergyman for a time before rooming on the third floor of what is now Maine Hall in 1823. He joined the Peucinian Society, a group of students with Federalist leanings. In his senior year, Longfellow wrote to his father about his aspirations:
He pursued his literary goals by submitting poetry and
prose to various newspapers and magazines, partly due to
encouragement from a professor named Thomas Cogswell
Upham. Between January 1824 and his graduation in 1825, he
had published nearly 40 minor poems. About 24 of them
appeared in the short lived Boston periodical The
United States Literary Gazette.
When Longfellow graduated from Bowdoin, he was ranked
fourth in the class, and had been elected to Phi Beta Kappa.
He gave the student commencement address. After graduating in 1825, he was offered a job as professor of modern languages at his alma mater. The story, possibly apocryphal, is that an influential trustee, Benjamin Orr, had been so impressed by Longfellow's translation of Horace that he was hired under the condition that he travel to Europe to study French, Spanish and Italian. Whatever the motivation, he began his tour of Europe in May 1826 aboard the ship Cadmus. His time abroad would last three years and cost his father $2,604.24. He traveled to France, Spain, Italy, Germany, back to France, then England before returning to the United States in mid August 1829. While overseas, he learned French, Spanish, Portuguese and German, mostly without formal instruction. In Madrid, he spent time with Washington Irving and was particularly impressed by the author's work ethic. Irving encouraged the young Longfellow to pursue writing. While in Spain, Longfellow was saddened to learn that his favorite sister, Elizabeth, had died of tuberculosis at the age of 20 that May while he was abroad. On August 27, 1829, he wrote to the president of Bowdoin
that he was turning down the professorship because he
considered the $600 salary "disproportionate to the duties
required". The trustees raised his salary to $800 with an
additional $100 to serve as the college's librarian, a
post which required one hour of work per day. During his
years teaching at the college, he translated textbooks in
French, Italian and Spanish; his first published book was
in 1833, a translation of the poetry of medieval Spanish
poet Jorge Manrique. He also published a travel book, Outre-Mer:
A Pilgrimage Beyond the Sea, first published in
serial form before a book edition was released in 1835.
Shortly after the book's publication, Longfellow attempted
to join the literary circle in New York and asked George
Pope Morris for an editorial role at one of Morris's
publications. Longfellow considered moving to New York
after New York University considered offering him a newly
created professorship of modern languages, though there
would be no salary. The professorship was not created and
Longfellow agreed to continue teaching at Bowdoin. It may
have been joyless work. He wrote, "I hate the sight of
pen, ink, and paper... I do not believe that I was born
for such a lot. I have aimed higher than this". On September 14, 1831, Longfellow married Mary Storer Potter, a childhood friend from Portland. The couple settled in Brunswick, though the two were not happy there. Longfellow published several nonfiction and fiction prose pieces inspired by Irving, including "The Indian Summer" and "The Bald Eagle" in 1833. In December 1834, Longfellow received a letter from Josiah Quincy III, president of Harvard College, offering him the Smith Professorship of Modern Languages with the stipulation that he spend a year or so abroad. There, he further studied German as well as Dutch, Danish, Swedish, Finnish and Icelandic. In October 1835, during the trip, his wife Mary had a miscarriage about six months into her pregnancy. She did not recover and died after several weeks of illness at the age of 22 on November 29, 1835. Longfellow had her body embalmed immediately and placed into a lead coffin inside an oak coffin which was then shipped to Mount Auburn Cemetery near Boston. He was deeply saddened by her death, writing "One thought occupies me night and day... She is dead — She is dead! All day I am weary and sad". Three years later, he was inspired to write the poem "Footsteps of Angels" about her. Several years later, he wrote the poem "Mezzo Cammin" expressed his personal struggles in his middle years. When he returned to the United States in 1836, Longfellow
took up the professorship at Harvard. He was required to
live in Cambridge to be close to the campus and rented
rooms at the Craigie House in the spring of 1837,
now preserved as the Longfellow House – Washington's
Headquarters National Historic Site. The home, built in
1759, had once been the headquarters of George Washington
during the Siege of Boston beginning in July 1775.
Previous boarders also included Jared Sparks, Edward
Everett and Joseph Emerson Worcester. Longfellow began
publishing his poetry, including the collection Voices
of the Night in 1839. The bulk of Voices
of the Night, Longfellow's debut book of poetry, was
translations though he also included nine original poems
and seven poems he had written as a teenager. Ballads
and Other Poems was published shortly thereafter in
1841
and included "The Village Blacksmith" and "The Wreck of
the Hesperus", which were instantly popular. Longfellow
also became part of the local social scene, creating a
group of friends who called themselves the Five of Clubs.
Members included Cornelius Conway Felton, George Stillman
Hillard and Charles Sumner, the latter of whom would
become Longfellow's closest friend over the next 30 years.
As a professor, Longfellow was well liked, though he
disliked being "constantly a playmate for boys" rather
than "stretching out and grappling with men's
minds." Longfellow began courting Frances "Fanny" Appleton, the daughter of a wealthy Boston industrialist, Nathan Appleton and sister of Thomas Gold Appleton. At first, she was not interested but Longfellow was determined. In July 1839, he wrote to a friend: "[V]ictory hangs doubtful. The lady says she will not! I say she shall! It is not pride, but the madness of passion". His friend George Stillman Hillard encouraged Longfellow in the pursuit: "I delight to see you keeping up so stout a heart for the resolve to conquer is half the battle in love as well as war". During the courtship, Longfellow frequently walked from Cambridge to the Appleton home in Beacon Hill in Boston by crossing the Boston Bridge. That bridge was replaced in 1906 by a new bridge which was later renamed the Longfellow Bridge. During his courtship, Longfellow continued writing and,
in late 1839, published Hyperion,
a book in prose inspired by his trips abroad and his
unsuccessful courtship of Fanny Appleton.
Amidst this, Longfellow fell into "periods of neurotic
depression with moments of panic" and took a six month
leave of absence from Harvard to attend a health spa in
the former Marienberg Benedictine Convent at Boppard in
Germany. After returning,
Longfellow published a play in 1842, The Spanish
Student, reflecting his memories from his time in
Spain in the 1820s. There was some
confusion over its original manuscript. After being
printed in Graham's Magazine, its editor Rufus
Wilmot Griswold saved the manuscript from the trash.
Longfellow was surprised to hear that it had been saved,
unusual for a printing office, and asked to borrow it so
that he could revise it, forgetting to return it to
Griswold. The often vindictive Griswold wrote an angry
letter in response. A small collection, Poems on Slavery, was published in 1842 as Longfellow's first public support of abolitionism. However, as Longfellow himself wrote, the poems were "so mild that even a Slaveholder might read them without losing his appetite for breakfast". A critic for The Dial agreed, calling it "the thinnest of all Mr. Longfellow's thin books; spirited and polished like its forerunners; but the topic would warrant a deeper tone". The New England Anti - Slavery Association, however, was satisfied with the collection enough to reprint it for further distribution. On May 10, 1843, after seven years, Longfellow received a
letter from Fanny Appleton agreeing to marry him and, too
restless to take a carriage, walked 90 minutes to meet her
at her house.
They were soon married. Nathan Appleton bought the Craigie
House as a wedding present to the pair. Longfellow lived
there for the rest of his life. His love for Fanny is
evident in the following lines from Longfellow's only love
poem, the sonnet "The Evening Star", which he wrote in
October 1845: "O my beloved, my sweet Hesperus! My morning
and my evening star of love!" He once attended a ball
without her and noted, "The lights seemed dimmer, the
music sadder, the flowers fewer, and the women less fair." He and Fanny had six children: Charles Appleton (1844 - 1893), Ernest Wadsworth (1845 - 1921), Fanny (1847 - 1848), Alice Mary (1850 - 1928), Edith (1853 - 1915) and Anne Allegra (1855 - 1934). Their second youngest daughter, Edith, married Richard Henry Dana III, son of the popular writer Richard Henry Dana, Jr., author of Two Years Before the Mast. When the younger Fanny was born on April 7, 1847, Dr. Nathan Cooley Keep administered ether as the first obstetric anesthetic in the United States to Fanny Longfellow. A few months later, on November 1, 1847, the poem Evangeline was published for the first time. His literary income was increasing considerably: in 1840, he had made $219 from his work but the year 1850 brought him $1,900. On June 14, 1853, Longfellow held a farewell dinner party
at his Cambridge home for his friend Nathaniel Hawthorne,
who was preparing to move overseas. In 1854,
Longfellow retired from Harvard, devoting himself entirely
to writing. He was awarded an honorary doctorate of laws
from Harvard in 1859. On July 9, 1861, a hot day, Fanny was putting locks of her children's hair into an envelope and attempting to seal it with hot sealing wax while Longfellow took a nap. Her dress suddenly caught fire, though it is unclear exactly how; it may have been burning wax or a lighted candle that fell on her dress. Longfellow, awakened from his nap, rushed to help her and threw a rug over her, though it was too small. He stifled the flames with his body as best he could, but she was already badly burned. Over a half a century later, Longfellow's youngest daughter Annie explained the story differently, claiming that there had been no candle or wax but that the fire had started from a self - lighting match that had fallen on the floor. In both versions of the story, however, Fanny was taken to her room to recover and a doctor was called. She was in and out of consciousness throughout the night and was administered ether. The next morning, July 10, 1861, she died shortly after 10 o'clock after requesting a cup of coffee. Longfellow, in trying to save her, had burned himself badly enough for him to be unable to attend her funeral. His facial injuries led him to stop shaving, thereafter wearing the beard which has become his trademark. Devastated by her death, he never fully recovered and occasionally resorted to laudanum and ether to deal with it. He worried he would go insane and begged "not to be sent to an asylum" and noted that he was "inwardly bleeding to death". He expressed his grief in the sonnet "The Cross of Snow" (1879), which he wrote eighteen years later to commemorate her death:
Longfellow spent several years translating Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy. To aid him in perfecting the translation and reviewing proofs, he invited friends to weekly meetings every Wednesday starting in 1864. The "Dante Club", as it was called, regularly included William Dean Howells, James Russell Lowell, Charles Eliot Norton and other occasional guests. The full three volume translation was published in the spring of 1867, though Longfellow would continue to revise it, and went through four printings in its first year. By 1868, Longfellow's annual income was over $48,000. In 1874, Samuel Cutler Ward helped him sell the poem "The Hanging of the Crane" to the New York Ledger for $3,000; it was the highest price ever paid for a poem. During the 1860s, Longfellow supported abolitionism and especially hoped for reconciliation between the northern and southern states after the American Civil War. He wrote in his journal in 1878: "I have only one desire; and that is for harmony, and a frank and honest understanding between North and South". Longfellow, despite his aversion to public speaking, accepted an offer from Joshua Chamberlain to speak at his fiftieth reunion at Bowdoin College; he read the poem "Morituri Salutamus" so quietly that few could hear him. The next year, 1876, he declined an offer to be nominated for the Board of Overseers at Harvard "for reasons very conclusive to my own mind". On August 22, 1879, a female admirer traveled to
Longfellow's house in Cambridge and, unaware to whom she
was speaking, asked Longfellow: "Is this the house where
Longfellow was born?" Longfellow told her it was not. The
visitor then asked if he had died here. "Not yet", he
replied. In March 1882, Longfellow went to bed with severe
stomach pain. He endured the pain for several days with
the help of opium before he died surrounded by family on
Friday, March 24, 1882. He had been
suffering from peritonitis. At the time of his
death, his estate was worth an estimated $356,320. He is
buried with both of his wives at Mount Auburn Cemetery in
Cambridge, Massachusetts. His last few years were spent
translating the poetry of Michelangelo; though Longfellow
never considered it complete enough to be published during
his lifetime, a posthumous edition was collected in 1883.
Scholars generally regard the work as autobiographical,
reflecting the translator as an aging artist facing his
impending death. Though much of his work is categorized as lyric poetry, Longfellow experimented with many forms, including hexameter and free verse. His published poetry shows great versatility, using anapestic and trochaic forms, blank verse, heroic couplets, ballads and sonnets. Typically, Longfellow would carefully consider the subject of his poetic ideas for a long time before deciding on the right metrical form for it. Much of his work is recognized for its melody-like musicality. As he says, "what a writer asks of his reader is not so much to like as to listen". As a very private man, Longfellow did not often add autobiographical elements to his poetry. Two notable exceptions are dedicated to the death of members of his family. "Resignation", written as a response to the death of his daughter Fanny in 1848, does not use first-person pronouns and is instead a generalized poem of mourning. The death of his second wife Frances, as biographer Charles Calhoun wrote, deeply affected Longfellow personally but "seemed not to touch his poetry, at least directly". His memorial poem to her, a sonnet called "The Cross of Snow", was not published in his lifetime. Longfellow often used didacticism in his poetry, though he focused on it less in his later years. Much of his poetry imparts cultural and moral values, particularly focused on promoting life as being more than material pursuits. Longfellow also often used allegory in his work. In "Nature", for example, death is depicted as bedtime for a cranky child. Many of the metaphors he used in his poetry as well as subject matter came from legends, mythology and literature. He was inspired, for example, by Norse mythology for "The Skeleton in Armor" and by Finnish legends for The Song of Hiawatha. In fact, Longfellow rarely wrote on current subjects and seemed detached from contemporary American concerns. Even so, Longfellow, like many during this period, called for the development of high quality American literature. In Kavanagh, a character says:
He was also important as a translator; his translation of Dante became a required possession for those who wanted to be a part of high culture. He also encouraged and supported other translators. In 1845, he published The Poets and Poetry of Europe, an 800 page compilation of translations made by other writers, including many by his friend and colleague Cornelius Conway Felton. Longfellow intended the anthology "to bring together, into a compact and convenient form, as large an amount as possible of those English translations which are scattered through many volumes, and are not accessible to the general reader". In honor of Longfellow's role with translations, Harvard established the Longfellow Institute in 1994, dedicated to literature written in the United States in languages other than English. In 1874, Longfellow oversaw a 31-volume anthology called
Poems of Places, which collected poems representing
several geographical locations, including European, Asian,
and Arabian countries. Emerson was disappointed and
reportedly told Longfellow: "The world is expecting better
things of you than this... You are wasting time that
should be bestowed upon original production". In preparing
the volume, Longfellow hired Katherine Sherwood Bonner as
an amanuensis. Longfellow's early collections, Voices of the Night and Ballads and Other Poems, made him instantly popular. The New-Yorker called him "one of the very few in our time who has successfully aimed in putting poetry to its best and sweetest uses". The Southern Literary Messenger immediately put Longfellow "among the first of our American poets". Poet John Greenleaf Whittier said that Longfellow's poetry illustrated "the careful moulding by which art attains the graceful ease and chaste simplicity of nature". Longfellow's friend Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. wrote of him as "our chief singer" and one who "wins and warms... kindles, softens, cheers [and] calms the wildest woe and stays the bitterest tears!" The rapidity with which American readers embraced Longfellow was unparalleled in publishing history in the United States; by 1874, he was earning $3,000 per poem. His popularity spread throughout Europe as well and his poetry was translated during his lifetime into Italian, French, German and other languages. As scholar Bliss Perry later wrote, Longfellow was so highly praised that criticizing him was a criminal act like "carrying a rifle into a national park". In the last two decades of his life, he often received requests for autographs from strangers, which he always sent. John Greenleaf Whittier suggested it was this massive correspondence that led to Longfellow's death, writing: "My friend Longfellow was driven to death by these incessant demands". Contemporary writer Edgar Allan Poe wrote to Longfellow in May 1841 of his "fervent admiration which [your] genius has inspired in me" and later called him "unquestionably the best poet in America". However, after Poe's reputation as a critic increased, he publicly accused Longfellow of plagiarism in what has been since termed by Poe biographers as "The Longfellow War". His assessment was that Longfellow was "a determined imitator and a dextrous adapter of the ideas of other people", specifically Alfred, Lord Tennyson. His accusations may have been a publicity stunt to boost readership of the Broadway Journal, for which he was the editor at the time. Longfellow did not respond publicly, but, after Poe's death, he wrote: "The harshness of his criticisms I have never attributed to anything but the irritation of a sensitive nature chafed by some indefinite sense of wrong". Margaret Fuller judged him "artificial and imitative" and
lacking force. Poet Walt Whitman also considered
Longfellow an imitator of European forms, though he
praised his ability to reach a popular audience as "the
expressor of common themes – of the little songs of the
masses".
He added, "Longfellow was no revolutionarie: never
traveled new paths: of course never broke new paths."
Lewis Mumford said that Longfellow could be completely
removed from the history of literature without much
effect.
Towards the end of his life, contemporaries considered him
more of a children's poet as many of his
readers were children. A contemporary reviewer noted in
1848 that Longfellow was creating a "Goody two - shoes
kind of literature... slipshod, sentimental stories told
in the style of the nursery, beginning in nothing and
ending in nothing". A more modern critic said, "Who,
except wretched schoolchildren, now reads Longfellow?"
A London critic in the London Quarterly Review,
however, condemned all American poetry, saying, "with two
or three exceptions, there is not a poet of mark in the
whole union" but singled out Longfellow as one of those
exceptions.
As an editor of the Boston Evening Transcript
wrote in 1846, "Whatever the miserable envy of trashy
criticism may write against Longfellow, one thing is most
certain, no American poet is more read". Longfellow was the most popular poet of his day and is generally regarded as the most distinguished poet the country had produced. As a friend once wrote to him, "no other poet was so fully recognized his lifetime". Many of his works helped shape the American character and its legacy, particularly with the poem "Paul Revere's Ride". He was such an admired figure in the United States during his life that his 70th birthday in 1877 took on the air of a national holiday, with parades, speeches and the reading of his poetry. Over the years, Longfellow's personality has become part of his reputation. He has been presented as a gentle, placid, poetic soul: an image perpetuated by his brother Samuel Longfellow, who wrote an early biography which specifically emphasized these points. As James Russell Lowell said, Longfellow had an "absolute sweetness, simplicity, and modesty". At Longfellow's funeral, his friend Ralph Waldo Emerson called him "a sweet and beautiful soul". In reality, Longfellow's life was much more difficult than was assumed. He suffered from neuralgia, which caused him constant pain, and he also had poor eyesight. He wrote to friend Charles Sumner: "I do not believe anyone can be perfectly well, who has a brain and a heart". He had difficulty coping with the death of his second wife. Longfellow was very quiet, reserved and private; in later years, he was known for being unsocial and avoided leaving home. He had become one of the first American celebrities and was also popular in Europe. It was reported that 10,000 copies of The Courtship of Miles Standish sold in London in a single day. Children adored him and, when the "spreading chestnut - tree" mentioned in the poem "The Village Blacksmith" was cut down, the children of Cambridge had the tree converted into an armchair which they presented to the poet. In 1884, Longfellow became the first non-British writer for whom a commemorative sculpted bust was placed in Poet's Corner of Westminster Abbey in London; he remains the only American poet represented with a bust. More recently, he was honored in March 2007 when the United States Postal Service issued a stamp commemorating him. A number of schools are named after him in various states as well. Neil Diamond's 1974 hit song, "Longfellow Serenade", is a reference to the poet. He is a protagonist in Matthew Pearl's murder mystery The Dante Club (2003). Longfellow's popularity rapidly declined, beginning shortly after his death and into the twentieth century as academics began to appreciate poets like Walt Whitman, Edwin Arlington Robinson and Robert Frost. In the twentieth century, literary scholar Kermit Vanderbilt noted, "Increasingly rare is the scholar who braves ridicule to justify the art of Longfellow's popular rhymings." 20th century poet Lewis Putnam Turco concluded "Longfellow was minor and derivative in every way throughout his career... nothing more than a hack imitator of the English Romantics." |