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George Berkeley (12 March 1685 – 14 January 1753), also known as Bishop Berkeley (Bishop of Cloyne), was an Anglo-Irish philosopher whose primary achievement was the advancement of a theory he called "immaterialism" (later referred to as "subjective idealism" by others). This theory contends that individuals can only know directly sensations and ideas of objects, not abstractions such as "matter". The theory also contends that ideas are dependent upon being perceived by minds for their very existence, a belief that became immortalized in the dictum, "esse est percipi" ("to be is to be perceived"). His most widely-read works are A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge (1710) and Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous (1713), in which the characters Philonous and Hylas represent Berkeley himself and his older contemporary John Locke. In 1734, he published The Analyst, a critique of the foundations of infinitesimal calculus, which was influential in the development of mathematics. Berkeley was born at his family home, Dysart Castle, near Thomastown, County Kilkenny, Ireland, the eldest son of William Berkeley, a cadet of the noble family of Berkeley. He was educated at Kilkenny College and attended Trinity College, Dublin, completing a Master's degree in 1707. He remained at Trinity College after completion of his degree as a tutor and Greek lecturer. His earliest publication was on mathematics, but the first that brought him notice was his Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision, first published in 1709. In the essay, Berkeley examined visual distance, magnitude, position and problems of sight and touch. Though giving rise to much controversy at the time, its conclusions are now accepted as an established part of the theory of optics. The next publication to appear was the Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge in 1710, which was followed in 1713 by Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous, in which he propounded his system of philosophy, the leading principle of which is that the world as represented to our senses depends for its existence, as such, on being perceived. Of this theory, the Principles gives the exposition and the Dialogues the defence. One of his main objectives was to combat the prevailing materialism of the time. The theory was largely received with ridicule; while even those, such as Samuel Clarke and William Whiston, who did acknowledge his "extraordinary genius," were nevertheless convinced that his first principles were false. Shortly afterwards, Berkeley visited England, and was received into the circle of Addison, Pope and Steele.
In the period between 1714 and 1720, he interspersed his academic
endeavours with periods of extensive travel in Europe, including one of
the most extensive Grand Tours of the length and breadth of Italy ever
undertaken. In 1721, he took Holy Orders in the Church of Ireland, earning his doctorate in divinity, and once again chose to remain at Trinity College Dublin, lecturing this time in Divinity and in Hebrew. In 1724, he was made Dean of Derry. In 1725, he formed the project of founding a college in Bermuda for
training ministers for the colonies, and missionaries to the Indians,
in pursuit of which he gave up his deanery with its income of
£1100. In
1728, he married Anne Forster, daughter of the Lord Chief Justice of
Ireland. He then went to America on a salary of £100. He landed near Newport, Rhode Island, where he bought a plantation – the famous "Whitehall".
He lived at the plantation while he waited for funds for his college to
arrive. The funds, however, were not forthcoming and in 1732 he
returned to London. While living on London's Saville Street, he took
part in the efforts to create a home for the city's abandoned children.
The Foundling Hospital was founded by Royal Charter in 1739 and Berkeley is listed as one of its original governors. In 1734, he was appointed Bishop of Cloyne in Ireland. Soon afterwards, he published Alciphron, or The Minute Philosopher, directed against both Shaftesbury and Bernard de Mandeville; and in 1735–37 The Querist. His last two publications were Siris:
Philosophical reflexions and inquiries concerning the virtues of
tar-water, and divers other subjects connected together and arising
from one another (1744) and Further Thoughts on Tar-water (1752). Pine tar is
an effective antiseptic and disinfectant when applied to cuts on the
skin, but Berkeley argued for the use of pine tar as a broad panacea
for disease in general. It is said that his 1744 book on the medical
benefits of pine tar was his best-selling book in his lifetime. He
remained at Cloyne until 1752, when he retired and went to Oxford to
live with his son. He died soon afterward and was buried in Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford. His affectionate disposition and genial manners made him much loved and held in warm regard by many of his contemporaries. Berkeley stated that individuals cannot think or talk about an object's being, but rather think or talk about an object's being perceived by someone. That is, individuals cannot know any "real" object or matter "behind"
the object as they perceive it, which "causes" their perceptions. He
thus concluded that all that individuals know about an object is their
perception of it. Under
his theory, the object a person perceives is the only object that the
person knows and experiences. If individuals need to speak at all of
the "real" or "material" object, the latter in particular being a
confused term that Berkeley sought to dispose of, it is this perceived
object to which all such names should exclusively refer. This
raises the question whether this perceived object is "objective" in the
sense of being "the same" for fellow humans. In fact, is the concept of
"other" human beings, beyond an individual's perception of them, valid?
Berkeley argued that since an individual experiences other humans in
the way they speak to him — something that does not originating from his
own activity — and since he learns that their view of the world is
consistent with his, he can believe in their existence and in the world
being identical or similar for everyone. It follows that: From this it follows that: Theologically, some believe that one consequence of Berkeley's views is that they require God to be present as an immediate cause of all our experiences. God is not the distant engineer of Newtonian machinery
that in the fullness of time led to the growth of a tree in the
university quadrangle. Rather, my perception of the tree is an idea
that God's mind has produced in mine, and the tree continues to exist
in the quadrangle when "nobody" is there, simply because God is an
infinite mind that perceives all. The philosophy of David Hume concerning
causality and objectivity is an elaboration of another aspect of
Berkeley's philosophy. As Berkeley's thought progressed, his works took
on a more Platonic character: Siris,
in particular, displays an interest in highly abstruse and speculative
metaphysics not to be found in the earlier works. However, A.A. Luce,
the most eminent Berkeley scholar of the twentieth century, constantly
stressed the continuity of Berkeley's philosophy. The fact that
Berkeley returned to his major works throughout his life, issuing
revised editions with only minor changes, also counts against any
theory that attributes to him a significant volte-face. Over a century later Berkeley's thought experiment was summarized in a limerick by Ronald Knox and an anonymous reply: In reference to Berkeley's philosophy, Dr. Samuel Johnson kicked a heavy stone and exclaimed, "I refute it thus!"
A philosophical empiricist might reply that the only thing that Dr.
Johnson knew about the stone was what he saw with his eyes, felt with
his foot, and heard with his ears. That is, the existence of the stone consisted exclusively of Dr. Johnson's perceptions. What the stone really consisted of (given that such a question can in fact be asked sensibly) could be
entirely different in construction to what was perceived - it existed,
ultimately, as an idea in his mind, nothing more and nothing less. John Locke (Berkeley's predecessor) states that we define an object by its primary and secondary qualities.
He takes heat as an example of a secondary quality. If you put one hand
in a bucket of cold water, and the other hand in a bucket of warm
water, then put both hands in a bucket of lukewarm water, one of your
hands is going to tell you that the water is cold and the other that
the water is hot. Locke says that since two different objects (both
your hands) perceive the water to be hot and cold, then the heat is not a quality of the water. While
Locke used this argument to distinguish primary from secondary
qualities, Berkeley extends it to cover primary qualities in the same
way. For example, he says that size is not a quality of an object
because the size of the object depends on the distance between the
observer and the object, or the size of observer. Since an object is a
different size to different observers, then size is not a quality of
the object. Berkeley refutes shape with a similar argument and then
asks: if neither primary qualities nor secondary qualities are of the
object, then how can we say that there is anything more than the
qualities we observe? Berkeley's Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge was published three years before the publication of Arthur Collier's Clavis Universalis,
which made assertions similar to those of Berkeley's. However, there
seemed to have been no influence or communication between the two
writers. German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer once
wrote of him: "Berkeley was, therefore, the first to treat the
subjective starting-point really seriously and to demonstrate
irrefutably its absolute necessity. He is the father of idealism…". In
addition to his contributions to philosophy, Bishop Berkeley was also
very influential in the development of mathematics, although in a rather indirect sense. In 1734, he published The Analyst, subtitled A DISCOURSE Addressed to an Infidel Mathematician. The infidel mathematician in question is believed to have been either Edmond Halley, or Isaac Newton himself — though if to the latter, the discourse was then posthumously addressed, as Newton died in 1727. The Analyst represented a direct attack on the foundations and principles of Infinitesimal calculus and, in particular, the notion of fluxion or infinitesimal change, which Newton and Leibniz used to develop the calculus. Berkeley coined the phrase Ghosts of departed quantities,
familiar to students of calculus, which captures the gist of his
criticism. Berkeley regarded his criticism of calculus as part of his
broader campaign against the religious implications of Newtonian mechanics – as a defence of traditional Christianity against deism,
which tends to distance God from His worshippers. The difficulties
raised by Berkeley were still present in the work of Cauchy whose
approach to infinitesimal calculus was a combination of infinitesimals and a notion of limit, and were eventually resolved by Weierstrass in terms of his (ε, δ) approach, which eliminated infinitesimals altogether. More recently, Abraham Robinson restored infinitesimal methods in his 1966 book Non-standard analysis by showing that they can be used rigorously.
The city of Berkeley, California, was named after him, although the pronunciation has evolved to suit American English. The naming was suggested in 1866 by a trustee of the then College of California, Frederick Billings. Billings was inspired by Berkeley's Verses on the Prospect of Planting Arts and Learning in America,
particularly the final stanza: "Westward the course of empire takes its
way; The first four Acts already past, A fifth shall close the Drama
with the day; Time's noblest offspring is the last." A residential college and an Episcopal seminary at Yale University also bear Berkeley's name, as does the Berkeley Library at Trinity College, Dublin. |