May 25, 2012 <Back to Index>
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Carl Jacob Christoph Burckhardt (May 25, 1818, Basel, Switzerland – August 8, 1897, Basel) was a historian of art and culture, and an influential figure in the historiography of each field. He is known as one of the major progenitors of cultural history, albeit in a form very different from how cultural history is conceived and studied in academia today. Siegfried Giedion described Burckhardt's achievement in the following terms: "The great discoverer of the age of the Renaissance, he first showed how a period should be treated in its entirety, with regard not only for its painting, sculpture and architecture, but for the social institutions of its daily life as well." Burckhardt's best known work is The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (1860). The
son of a Protestant clergyman, Burckhardt studied theology in Basel in
the hope of taking holy orders; however, under the influence of Dewette
he choose not to become a clergyman. He finished his degree in 1839 and
went to the University of Berlin to study history, especially art history, then a new field. At Berlin, he attended lectures by Leopold von Ranke,
the founder of history as a respectable academic discipline based on
sources and records rather than personal opinions. He spent part of
1841 at the University of Bonn, studying under the art historian Franz Kugler, to whom he dedicated his first book, Die Kunstwerke der belgischen Städte (1842). He taught at the University of Basel from 1843 to 1855, then at the engineering school ETH Zurich.
In 1858, he returned to Basel to assume the professorship he held until
his 1893 retirement. Only starting in 1886 did he teach art history
exclusively. He twice declined offers of professorial chairs at German
universities, at the University of Tübingen in 1867, and Ranke's chair at the University of Berlin in 1872. Burckhardt's
historical writings did much to establish the importance of art in the
study of history; indeed, he was one of the "founding fathers of art
history" but also one of the original creators of cultural history.
According to John Lukacs,
he was the first master of cultural history, which seeks to describe
the spirit and the forms of expression of a particular age, a
particular people, or a particular place. His innovative approach to
historical research stressed the importance of art and its inestimable
value as a primary source for the study of history. He was one of the
first historians to rise above the narrow nineteenth century notion
that "history is past politics and politics current history." Burckhardt's unsystematic approach to history was strongly opposed to the interpretations of Hegelianism, which was popular at the time; economism as an interpretation of history; and positivism, which had come to dominate scientific discourses (including the discourse of the social sciences). In
1838. Burckhardt made his first journey to Italy and published his
first important article, "Bemerkungen über schweizerische
Kathedralen" ("Remarks about Swiss Cathedrals"). In 1847 he brought out
new editions of Kugler's two great works, Geschichte der Malerei and Kunstgeschichte, and in 1853 published his own work, Die Zeit Constantins des Grossen ("The
Age of Constantine the Great"). He spent the greater part of the years
1853 – 1854 in Italy, collecting materials for his 1855 Der Cicerone: Eine Anleitung zum Genuss der Kunstwerke Italiens (7th German edition, 1899), also dedicated to Kugler. This work, "the finest travel guide that has ever been written" which covered sculpture and architecture, as well as painting, became an indispensable guide to the art traveller in Italy. About half of the original edition was devoted to the art of the Renaissance. Thus Burckhardt was naturally led to write the two books for which he is best known, his 1860 Die Kultur der Renaissance in Italien ("The
Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy") (English translation, by SGC
Middlemore, in 2 vols., London, 1878), and his 1867 Geschichte der Renaissance in Italien ("The History of the Renaissance in Italy"). The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy was
the most influential interpretation of the Italian Renaissance in the
nineteenth century and is still widely read. Burckhardt and the German
historian Georg Voigt founded
the historical study of the Renaissance. In contrast to Voigt, who
confined his studies to early Italian humanism, Burckhardt dealt with
all aspects of Renaissance society. Burckhardt
considered the study of ancient history an intellectual necessity and
was a highly respected scholar of Greek civilization. "The Greeks and
Greek Civilization" sums up the relevant lectures, "Griechische
Kulturgeschichte", which Burckhardt first gave in 1872 and which he
repeated until 1885. At his death, he was working on a four volume
survey of Greek civilization. Friedrich Nietzsche,
appointed professor of classical philology at Basel in 1869 at the age
of 24, admired Burckhardt and attended some of his lectures. Both men
were admirers of the late Arthur Schopenhauer. Nietzsche believed Burckhardt agreed with the thesis of his The Birth of Tragedy,
namely that Greek culture was defined by opposing "Apollonian" and
"Dionysian" tendencies. Nietzsche and Burckhardt enjoyed each other's
intellectual company, even as Burckhardt kept his distance from
Nietzsche's evolving philosophy. Their extensive correspondence over a
number of years has been published. Burckhardt's student Heinrich Wölfflin succeeded him at the University of Basel at the age of only twenty-eight. There is an interesting tension in Burckhardt's persona between the wise and worldly student of the Italian Renaissance, and the cautious product of Swiss Calvinism,
which he had studied extensively for the ministry. The Swiss polity in
which he spent nearly all of his life was a good deal more democratic
and stable than was the norm in nineteenth century Europe. As a Swiss,
Burckhardt was also cool to German nationalism and to German claims of
cultural and intellectual superiority. He was also amply aware of the
rapid political and economic changes taking place in the Europe of his
day, commenting in his lectures and writings on the Industrial Revolution,
the European political upheavals of his day, and the growing European
nationalism and militarism. Events amply fulfilled his prediction of a
cataclysmic twentieth century, in which violent demagogues (whom he
called "terrible simplifiers") would play central roles. In later
years, Burckhardt found himself unimpressed by democracy,
individualism, socialism and a great many other ideas which were
fashionable during his lifetime. He
also observed over a century ago, “the state incurs debts for politics,
war, and other higher causes and ‘progress’. . . . The assumption is
that the future will honor this relationship in perpetuity. The state
has learned from the merchants and industrialists how to exploit
credit; it defies the nation ever to let it go into bankruptcy.
Alongside all swindlers the state now stands there as
swindler-in-chief.” |